THE  SOCIAL  SPIRIT 
IN  AMERICA 


BY 

CHARLES  RICHMOND  HENDERSON 

ntOFKMOR  OF  SOCIOLOGY  IN  TUB  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


CHICAGO 

SCOTT,  FORESMAN  AND  COMPANY 
1904 


COPYRIGHT,    1897 
BY  FLOOD  AND  VINCENT 

COPYRIGHT,   IQOI 
BY  SCOTT,  FORESMAN   AND  COMPANY 


BOB*.    O.     I.AV    CO. 
LNTKHa    AND  BIHDBB* 
CHICAGO 


LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  Oi   C'. 

SAM'A  BAKlUfiA 


PREFACE 

In  our  land,  as  well  as  in  others,  there  is  a  rising 
spirit  of  fellowship,  patriotism  and  of  service  to  man- 
kind. Selfishness  grows  sick  of  its  narrowness  and 
miserliness,  weary  of  its  treadmill;  while  benevolence 
offers  its  labors  with  radiant  countenance,  and  gazes, 
like  the  redeemed  Faust,  upon  a  region  made  fertile 
and  fruitful  by  its  cheerful  toils. 

The  educated  world  is  learning  that  wisdom  and 
virtue  become  a  personal  possession  only  by  practice 
and  habit;  that  roused  emotion  can  be  transformed 
into  stable  and  noble  character  only  by  well  directed 
and  steadfast  occupation.  The  sermon  wastes  its 
energy,  like  escaping  steam,  unless  it  guides  the 
hearer  into  rational  and  useful  labors.  Exhortations 
to  goodness  produce  cynicism  unless  they  lead  to 
social  ministries.  Piety  becomes  rant  and  hypocrisy 
unless  it  immediately  takes  shape  and  body  in  deeds 
of  love  to  "the  brother  whom  we  have  seen." 

Women's  clubs  all  over  our  country  are  dissatisfied 
with  programmes  which  look  only  to  self-culture  and 
ignore  the  deprivation  of  the  unfortunate.  Those 
who  have  become  interested  in  social  science  are  im- 
patient of  explanation,  description  and  theory  which 
do  not  lead  to  conduct.  All  interest  in  theo- 
retical science  has  begun  in  some  practical  desire  to 
attain  some  end  to  better  man's  estate. 

This  book,  now  passing  into  its  second  edition, 
itself  a  product  of  the  spirit  it  describes,  has  already 

served  in  its  modest  place  among  the  many  forces 

in 


iv  Preface. 

which  make  for  helpfulness  and  justice,  as  letters 
from  many  states  testify.  It  is  sent  forth  on  another 
voyage  with  the  sincere  hope  that  it  may  aid  other 
students  and  workers  as  an  introduction  to  the 
thought  and  the  toil  of  those  who  count  life  wasted 
which  is  useless. 

The  concrete  methods  here  described  are  not  imag- 
inative inventions  of  the  author,  but  ways  by  which 
earnest  men  and  women  have  actually  achieved  suc- 
cess. No  attempt  has  been  made  to  produce  an 
exhaustive  encyclopaedia  of  social  reforms,  but  only 
to  illustrate  a  tendency,  and  encourage  individual 
workers  and  associations.  There  are  excellent  gar- 
deners and  farmers  who  are  not  expert  botanists  and 
chemists;  and  there  are  admirable  philanthropists 
who  are  not  sociologists.  Yet  botany,  chemistry  and 
sociology  do  throw  light  on  the  working  world,  and 
the  practical  man  may  constantly  improve  his  methods 
by  the  study  of  his  field  by  men  of  science. 

Many  people  of  generous  and  patriotic  sympathies, 
eager  to  advance  goodness,  truth  and  beauty,  are 
discouraged  from  undertaking  large  enterprises  and 
cosmic  schemes  by  their  vastness,  remoteness  and 
complexity.  Show  them  a  way  from  their  own  door 
which  leads  straight  to  a  task  which  is  not  beyond 
their  resources  of  knowledge,  time  and  money,  and 
they  cheerfully  follow  it  to  a  definite  duty,  and 
return  to  their  home  with  satisfaction  of  heart  and 
conscience. 

Michael  Angelo's  famous  saying  is  true  of  the  art 
of  living  as  of  the  art  of  sculpture:  "  Perfection  is 
made  up  of  trifles,  but  perfection  is  not  a  trifle." 
Little  deeds  of  multitudes  of  ordinary  people  make 
up  the  happiness  and  glory  of  a  splendid  nation. 


Preface.  v 

"Over  all  the  world,"  says  Edward  Everett  Hale, 
"many  a  man  and  woman  who  had  been  talking 
prose  all  their  lives,  and  doing  very  commonplace 
things,  began  to  learn  the  great  lessons,  that  it  is  in 
the  long  run  much  better  to  talk  prose  than  to  talk 
poetry,  and  that  he  who  does  commonplace  things 
well  may  be  mastering  the  world."  May  this  volume 
be  a  friendly  guide  to  many  who  wish  to  be  friends  of 
human  kind. 

CHARLES  RICHMOND  HENDERSON. 
The  University  of  Chicago,  April,  1901. 


CONTENTS. 

Chapter  fuft 

I.     INTRODUCTION 9 

II.     HOME-MAKING  AS  A  SOCIAL  ART  ...    23 

III.  FRIENDLY  CIRCLES   OF  WOMEN  WAGE- 

EARNERS   44 

IV.  BETTER  HOUSES  FOR  THE  PEOPLE  ...    59 
V.     PUBLIC  HEALTH 72 

VI.     GOOD  ROADS  AND  COMMUNICATION  .    .    88 
VII.     THE  FIRST  FACTOR  OF  INDUSTRIAL  RE- 
FORM :   THE  SOCIALIZED  CITIZEN   .    .  100 
VIII.     WHAT  GOOD  EMPLOYERS  ARE  DOING  .  117 
IX.     ORGANIZATIONS  OF  WAGE-EARNERS  .    .13*7 
X.     ECONOMIC  COOPERATION  OF  THE   COM- 
MUNITY   159 

XI.     POLITICAL  REFORMS 174 

XII.     THE     SOCIAL    SPIRIT    IN    THE    STATE 

SCHOOL  SYSTEM 191 

XIII.  VOLUNTARY     ORGANIZATION     OF    EDU- 

CATION    217 

XIV.  SOCIALIZED   BEAUTY  AXD   RECREATION  240 
XV.     CHARITY  AND  CORRECTION 260 

XVI.    THE  SOCIAL  SPIRIT  IN  CONFLICT  WITH 

ANTI-SOCIAL  INSTITUTIONS 280 

XVII.     THE    INSTITUTIONS    OF    IDEALS  :     THE 

ANCIENT  CONFEDERACY  OF  VIRTUE  .  304 

APPENDIX 331 

vii 


THE  SOCIAL  SPIRIT   IN  AMERICA. 
CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

' '  A  POOR  and  cowardly  spirit  is  every  servant  of 
social  science  who  does  not  labor  in  the  service  of  Jo 
promoting  civic  life,"  says  master  Schaffle,  a  leader 
of  the  system-makers.  His  English  peer,  the  cautious 
advocate  of  individual  enterprise,  says  in  his  last  vol- 
ume :  "It  may  fairly  be  said  that  the  study  of  sociology 
is  useless  if,  from  an  account  of  what  has  been,  we  can- 
not infer  what  is  to  be — that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a 
science  of  society  unless  its  generalizations  concerning 
past  days  yield  enlightenment  to  our  thoughts  concern- 
ing days  to  come,  and  consequent  guidance  to  our 
acts."  The  description  and  explanation  of  past  condi- 
tions, especially  of  the  remote  past,  deal  with  simple 
matters  of  fact.  But  enterprises  of  thought  and  effort 
which  look  toward  the  future  must  ever  have  a  large 
element  of  personal  belief  and  hope  which  cannot  claim 
so  absolute  a  scientific  justification.  For  us  the  world  is 
will  before  it  is  exact  knowledge,  for  no  one  can  ever 
know  what  is  possible  until  the  untried  is  attempted 
through  faith. 

Religious  beliefs  are  social  facts  quite  apart  from  our  ReJ.  . 
personal  acceptance  of  them.      When  they  are  our  own  beliefs. 
we  cannot  conceal  them.      Honesty  and  humanity  re- 
quire us  to  express  our  best  hopes  if  we  really  consider 
them  of  value.     Most  of  us  regard  this  world,  spite  of 

9 


IO  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

many  apparent  contradictions  and  enigmas,  as  the  crea- 
tion of  that  Father  whose  character  and  disposition  are 
most  perfectly  manifested  in  the  deeds,  words,  and 
•m  Holy  spirit  sacrifices  of  Jesus  Christ.  There  is  much  of  wrong, 
nniv«r««i.  cruelty,  oppression,  of  unspeakable  and  inexplicable 
wickedness,  but  the  universe  has  not  escaped  from 
infinite  goodness.  Nature  and  life  show  his  creative, 
indwelling  energy.  History  interprets  his  purpose  and 
his  moral  order.  Social  evolution  is  the  unfolding  of 
his  mind  and  will.  Evil  itself  will  be  found  subordinate 
and  subservient  to  his  holiness  and  love.  All  who  are 
working  for  goodness  are  cooperating  with,  not  con- 
tending against,  almighty  power.  Goethe  gives  us  a 
charming  parable  :  ' '  We  hear  of  a  singular  custom  in 
the  English  marine  service.  All  ropes  of  the  royal 
navy,  from  the  strongest  to  the  weakest,  are  woven  in 
such  a  manner  that  a  red  thread  runs  through  the 
whole,  which  no  one  can  unwind  without  destroying  all; 
and  thus  the  smallest  part  may  be  recognized  as  belong- 
ing to  the  crown. ' '  So  the  charity  of  God  runs  through 
all  the  works  of  human  justice  and  kindness  which  we 
here  call  ' '  the  social  spirit, ' '  a  fruit  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Such  is  our  belief.  This  is  not  the  place  for  any 

Origin  of  ,      ,          ,  _,,         ,    • 

beliefs.  attempts  at  proof  of  such  convictions.  They  have  grown 

up  in  each  of  us  from  inherited  and  instinctive  impulses, 
traditional  teachings,  social  customs  and  sentiments, 
laws,  literature,  parental  influence,  historical  study,  phi- 
losophical reflection.  Each  person  must  win  and  test 
his  own  view  of  the  universe.  Force  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. Bare  argument  has  little  weight.  Religious  be- 
liefs are  purified  and  strengthened  by  ethical  living  more 
than  by  logical  processes.  "He  that  is  willing  to  do 
His  will  shall  know."  Obedience  to  the  good  we  know 
is  the  organ  of  deeper  insight.  In  the  mind  of  religious 


Introduction.  1 1 


men  the  "social  spirit"  is  a  stream  from  the  divine 
fountain  of  all  being. 

It  is  true  that  a  social  history  could  be  written  which 
did  not  assume  the  truth  of  this  belief.  History  alone 
does  not  prove  that  infinite  righteousness  is  at  the  heart 
of  life.  Sociology  is  not  theology.  Social  science  may 
treat  religious  convictions  as  social  forces,  just  as  it 
treats  hunger,  love,  or  aesthetic  taste,  as  causes  actu- 
ally at  work.  It  is  for  theology  and  philosophy  to 
construct  arguments  about  the  reality  of  God's  exist- 
ence, while  sociology  finds  the  belief  in  divine  goodness 
a  phenomenon  in  life  and  shows  how  it  acts.  Religious 
belief,  however,  resembles  aesthetic  and  moral  senti- 
ments in  this,  that  it  is  most  adequately  appreciated  by 
those  who  have  inward  experience  of  its  quality.  One 
born  deaf  could  not  be  expected  to  write  an  edifying 
treatise  on  sound,  nor  one  born  blind  on  colors.  Ex- 
ternal effects  may  be  observed  by  any  impartial  student, 
but  inner  quality  and  tension  can  be  estimated  only  by 
those  who  live  the  life. 

Enthusiasm  for  humanity,  hope  of  progress,  con- 
fidence in  man  may  not  profess  to  be  religious,  but  they 
really  assume  and  imply  a  divine  foundation  of  happi- 
ness through  morality.  This  is  precisely  the  essence  of 
the  religious  view. 

While  our  moral  and  religious  beliefs  are  highly 
personal  they  are  by  no  means  mere  private  affairs. 
They  must  be  tested  by  nature  and  life.  If  beliefs  do 
not  help  welfare,  if  they  weaken  human  beings  in  body 
or  mind,  if  they  unfit  us  for  struggle  with  hunger,  cold, 
and  want,  they  must  disappear  with  the  people  who 
cling  to  them.  Hence  the  very  struggle  for  existence 
which  presses  upon  us  is  an  external  test,  independent 
of  our  private  notions  and  choices.  A  false  faith  can 


12  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

no  more  survive  than  an  inferior  plow  or  an  antiquated 
engine,  after  competition  has  had  a  chance  to  sift  and 
test. 

We  cannot  here  follow  the  long  history  of  the  enlarge- 
moti"vecnts '  ment  of  thought  and  the  refinement  of  sentiments. 
The  moral  forces  are  progressive  and  change  with  the 
entire  life  of  man.  They  are  relatively  less  occupied 
with  mere  escape  from  misery  and  fear;  they  are  in- 
creasingly directed  to  heightening  happiness,  delight, 
service,  knowledge.  We  are  passing  from  a  ' '  pain 
economy  "  to  a  "  pleasure  economy. ' '  By  reflection 
on  our  own  conduct  and  by  observing  the  actions  of 
our  fellow-men  we  discover  the  feelings  which  lead 
people  to  produce  social  institutions. 

The  world  is  first  moved  by  hunger  and  love.  Many 
human  beings  go  little  beyond  this.  Hunger  and  love 
conduct  men  to  marriage,  hold  parents  and  children  in 
the  family,  induce  men  to  till  and  travel,  to  organize 
banks,  railroad  companies,  and  all  commercial  enter- 
prises. 

But  in  all  ages  and  lands  other  motives  have  always 
imel«ts°f  acted  upon  conduct.  There  is  delight  in  amusement, 
ornament,  and  decoration.  The  play  instincts  unite 
with  the  aesthetic.  Many  ancient  men  painted  their 
bodies  before  they  wore  clothes.  Even  in  our  enlight- 
ened times  we  know  of  fine  barbarians,  lingering  late  in 
civilized  surroundings,  who  expend  their  income  on 
ostrich  feathers  while  they  shiver  without  woolen  under- 
wear. Rude  hunters  drew  pictures  on  their  weapons 
and  tents,  and  modern  merchants  will  pay  a  fortune  for 
a  Meissonier  or  a  Bouguereau.  The  wealth  of  a  king- 
dom goes  into  a  city  art  museum.  Diamonds  are 
sought  at  frightful  hazard  and  cost,  although  a  million 
of  them  would  not  feed  one  beggar.  Beauty  befits 


Introduction .  1 3 


holiness,  and  so  churches  are  made  splendid  with  fine 
architecture  to  please  the  taste  as  well  as  to  honor  the 
Creator. 

The  eager  questions  of  lisping   children,    the  boy's 

,  J         Scientific 

curious  search  for  cocoons,  shells,  and  beetles,  the  long  curiosity. 
and  costly  experiments  of  Palissy  and  Faraday,  the 
astronomical  and  exploring  expeditions,  the  erection  of 
colleges  and  universities,  the  publication  of  books  and 
papers,  are  all  witnesses  to  the  deep  and  universal  and 
increasing  desire  of  man  to  discover,  to  know.  Nature, 
human  beings,  and  the  Source  of  life  are  objects  of 
intellectual  interest,  and  many  men  have  laid  down  their 
lives  as  the  martyrs  of  science. 

How  eager  we  are  to  be  in  company  !     Without  any 

J     Fellowship. 

definite  purpose  human  beings  drift  into  fellowships  and 
enjoy  the  simple  delights  of  sociability.  Isolation,  if  it 
is  prolonged,  is  torture  to  all  healthy  persons ;  the 
insane  are  sometimes  improved  merely  by  giving  them 
companions  ;  and  even  criminals  beg  to  sit  down,  if 
only  in  silence,  with  persons  of  their  kind. 

Then  there  is  conscience,  the  profound  and  inex- 
tinguishable sense  of  the  right  and  the  just.  To  what 
noble  deeds  does  this  moral  feeling  give  birth.  How 
essential  it  is  to  social  security.  What  institutions  of 
custom  and  law  and  instruction  it  creates. 

Crowning  all  is  the  belief  in  God,  the  spring  of  trust,  . 
hope,  and  benevolence.  Religion  seems  to  be  universal 
and  instinctive.  It  often  takes  strange  and  monstrous 
forms.  It  may  be  made  hurtful  when  it  is  uninstructed, 
ignorant,  and  perverted  by  selfish  men.  But  it  is  a 
primary  social  force,  capable  of  being  made  a  mighty 
lever  of  human  welfare. 

"Self-interest,"  the  cynic  asserts,  is  the  sole  motive 
of  human  action.  But  what  is  this  "self"  whose 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Self-interest. 


The  social 
spirit  creates 
institutions. 


interest  is  so  powerful?  No  two  sells  are  alike  or  of 
equal  grade.  One  finds  delight  in  cruelty  and  low 
pleasures.  Another  secures  satisfaction  in  useful  serv- 
ice, in  heroic  enterprise,  in  noble  sacrifices.  Such 
forms  of  higher  self-interest  look  remarkably  like  sym- 
pathy, love,  altruism.  A  self  is  a  social  product,  and 
our  interests  are  in  our  children,  our  friends,  our  neigh- 
borhood, our  country,  our  church.  It  is  just  as  well  to 
call  these  larger  and  more  generous  impulses  by  higher 
titles.  It  does  not  assist  clearness  of  thought  to  ascribe 
selfishness  to  the  patriotic  soldier  who  dies  with  his  eyes 
turned  toward  his  flag. 

' '  Soul  is  form  and  doth  the  body  make. ' '  We  begin 
life,  without  our  own  selection,  in  the  first  institution 
of  history,  the.  family,  and  for  a  long  time  we  are  con- 
tent without  further  alliances.  Food,  protection,  com- 
panionship, answers  to  questions  of  curiosity,  play, 
work,  prayer  are  all  found  in  this  little  world.  But 
as  he  travels  further  the  boy  discovers,  perhaps  with 
pain,  the  necessity  of  going  to  school.  Father  and 
mother  are  too  busy  to  give  their  time  to  teaching,  and 
one  learns  more  rapidly  with  trained  teachers  and  in  the 
rivalry  of  a  class.  At  school  or  on  the  street  the  child 
makes  acquaintances  and  is  invited  to  a  party.  Life 
offers  fresh  attractions  and  novelties  to  surprise  and 
please  the  voyager  new  to  earth  and  sky.  At  length 
the  boy,  urged  by  example  and  necessity,  conscious  of 
growing  wants,  becomes  himself  a  farmer,  a  manu- 
facturer, or  a  merchant,  or  earns  his  living  by  industrial 
service  for  wages. 

The  policeman,  brilliant  with  brass  buttons,  monarch 
of  his  beat,  attracts  attention  to  the  dignities  and 
terrors  of  government  and  law.  The  office  of  a  jus- 
tice, the  grim  walls  and  grated  windows  of  a  jail,  the 


Introduction.  15 


solemn  forms  of  a  court,  are  outward  signs  of  the  state. 

Once  in  seven  days  the  doors  of  shops  are  closed,  the 
doors  of  churches  are  open,  the  bells  are  rung,  the 
dress  is  changed,  the  organ  calls  the  people  to  sacred 
song.  The  same  people  who  yesterday  were  drudges, 
toiling  with  grimy  hands,  are  now  worshipers.  Their 
beliefs  have  made  a  church  and  a  Sunday,  just  as 
hunger  made  a  flour-mill  or  a  slaughter-house.  Institu- 
tions are  social  clothes  which  grow  upon  us  so  as  to  fit 
our  movements  and  wants. 

If  we  could  trace  these  institutions  backward,  as  we  . 

Institutions 

might  follow  a  river  to  its  source,  we  should  find  them  grow, 
changing  and  growing.  And  if  we  have  knowledge  and 
insight  we  can  detect  order,  law,  method  in  this  growth. 
We  soon  find  that  population  grows  but  that  the  earth 
does  not  stretch.  There  are  more  people  in  the  same 
space  than  formerly,  and  they  are  all  hungry,  they  wear 
out  clothes  and  houses,  and  are  always  wanting  better 
things  and  have  an  ambition  to  get  on.  This  condition 
leads  to  foresight,  invention,  greater  industry,  more  in- 
tensive cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  self-control.  The 
men  of  science  talk  of  a  "  struggle  for  existence. ' '  The 
retail  shop-keeper,  who  is  growing  gray  and  bald  with 
worry  over  competition,  knows  what  that  struggle 
means.  Every  one  on  a  salary  fears  that  some  other 
person  may  get  his  place.  This  word  ' '  competition ' ' 
expresses  a  very  real  and  terrible  fact.  Dislike  it  as  we 
may  when  it  pinches  unusually  hard,  it  can  show  some  struggle. 
good  results.  It  makes  people  industrious.  It  helps  to 
transform  savages  into  barbarians  and  barbarians  into 
civilized  men. 

It  has  been  said  that  every  man  is  as  lazy  as  he 
dares  to  be.  One  of  the  fathers  thought  that  laziness 
was  the  original  sin,  it  is  so  common.  But  as  nature 


i6 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Competition. 


Customs. 


sets  an  empty  plate  before  the  idler  at  life's  ban- 
quet, and  gives  more  to  the  energetic  and  efficient 
worker,  the  tendency  of  competition  is  to  starve  out  the 
feeble,  the  slow,  the  indolent,  and  to  give  the  world  and 
its  soil  to  the  healthy,  the  vigorous,  the  cunning,  the 
inventive.  Some  go  up  as  others  go  down,  but  the 
race  moves  on  to  finer  achievements.  Competition 
itself  is  softened  and  sweetened  by  the  sympathies  which 
began  in  the  family,  extended  to  the  family  stock,  and 
finally  expanded  into  the  feeling  of  humanity,  universal 
philanthropy.  There  is  a  struggle  for  others  as  well 
as  for  self,  and  our  century  is  very  rich  in  examples  of 
this  ' '  social  spirit. "  As  we  proceed  we  shall  come 
upon  many  forms  of  this  broad  and  powerful  force  of 
human  benevolence.  "  All  things  proceed  out  of  this 
same  spirit,  which  is  differently  named  love,  justice, 
temperance,  in  its  different  applications,  just  as  the 
ocean  receives  different  names  on  the  several  shores 
which  it  washes  "  (Emerson). 

Social  beliefs  and  feelings  tend  to  produce  customs 
and  criticism.  If  many  people  dislike  a  disagreeable  or 
injurious  habit  they  are  likely  to  show  it,  either  by  soft 
missiles  of  words  or  hard  projectiles  and  blows.  Often 
the  blow  comes  first.  Society  has  an  instinct  of  reaction 
against  anything  which  hurts.  Customs  are  very 
strong,  as  we  see  in  the  case  of  fashions.  It  is  very 
painful  to  wear  a  hat  or  dress  of  last  year' s  style.  Some 
men  suffer  less  from  a  shoe  that  pinches  or  has  not  been 
paid  for  than  from  one  which  has  a  peculiar  shape. 
People  look  at  tailors'  plates  of  Paris  modes  to  discover 
how  they  can  be  happy.  Yet  fashion  never  appeals  to 
courts  and  jails.  Custom  is  a  governing  agency  stronger 
than  law. 

Special  sciences  have  grown  out  of   the  intellectual 


Introduction.  17 


efforts  of  men  to  comprehend  social  life  in  its  various 
aspects.  Industries,  trades,  banks,  taxation,  have  been 
studied  together  because  they  all  have  to  do  with  those 
goods  and  services  which  minister  on  the  material  side 
to  human  wants.  Carlyle  speaks  of  the  ' '  preliminary 
item  ' '  of  wealth  which  makes  high  thoughts  and  fine 
arts  possible.  The  systematized  knowledge  of  the  gen- 
eral laws  of  this  field  is  called  economics,  or  political 
economy.  The  study  of  the  forms  and  methods  of 
governments  of  townships,  cities,  counties,  states,  and 
nations  is  the  field  of  the  political  sciences,  of  which 
there  are  many  branches.  The  systematic  study  of  the 
church  and  school  has  produced  a  special  literature. 
Sociology  has  attempted  to  organize  the  general  results 
of  these  special  investigations  into  such  a  complete  and 
harmonious  view  that  the  relative  place  and  value  of 
each  may  be  determined. 

The  foregoing  paragraphs  introduce  the  particular 
subject  of  this  book.  The  word  "reform"  is  often  of  the  social 
applied  to  this  subject,  but  it  is  not  wide  enough  for  our 
purpose  and  it  has  suggestions  of  a  different  method  of 
regarding  the  facts.  We  are  to  study  movements  of 
life  and  products  natural  to  human  society  as  grass  is 
natural  in  meadows.  In  all  progressive  communities 
we  find  people  trying  to  correct  abuses  and  to  increase 
the  sum  of  human  happiness.  Associated  efforts  of 
this  kind,  if  they  are  destructive  of  evil,  are  usually 
called  reforms.  But  the  title  "social  movements" 
seems  to  be  m6re  appropriate  for  the  more  positive 
endeavors  to  augment  the  means  of  welfare.  Both  are 
ways  of  doing  good. 

There  are  three  fairly  distinct  types  of  voluntary  or- 
ganizations which  embody  this  progressive  and  creative 


1 8  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

activity  of  the  spirit  of  human  kinship.     Sometimes  we 
Typ«s.  finci  groups  of  persons  united  by  common  interests,  as 

desire  to  secure  material  wealth,  or  insurance  against 
loss,  or  some  high  forms  of  aesthetic  and  recreative  satis- 
faction ;  and  these  we  call  mutual  benefit  societies. 
There  is  a  second  class  of  associations  whose  purpose  of 
good  extends  beyond  their  own  membership  to  the 
entire  community  ;  and  these  are  societies  of  public 
spirit.  The  third  class  of  societies  is  called  charitable, 
and  they  are  composed  of  persons  strong  and  willing  to 
bear  the  burdens  of  the  weak.  They  devote  strength 
and  help  to  the  defective,  the  unfortunate,  the  criminal. 
Inventions  of  machinery  or  of  social  schemes  are 
HOW  improve-  rarely  the  work  of  a  single  mind.  Slight  changes  are 
introduced  unobserved  by  obscure  persons,  the  im- 
provements are  copied  by  others,  and  the  additions 
grow  insensibly.  In  other  instances  a  seer,  a  person  of 
genius,  discovers  a  social  need  and  invents  a  method  of 
betterment.  These  men,  if  they  are  well  disciplined, 
test  their  discoveries  by  careful  observation  and  cautious 
experiment.  They  make  proselytes  and  secure  adju- 
tants ;  they  inspire  propagandists  ;  they  form  societies, 
start  newspapers,  publish  tracts,  articles,  and  books  ; 
they  encourage  each  other  by  meetings,  conferences, 
and  conventions.  It  is  a  fine  help  if  they  can  induce 
some  unwary  enemy  to  egg  or  stone  them  or  to  put  them 
in  jail.  They  educate  the  public  and  make  the  cause 
popular,  if  it  have  vitality  and  worth  ;  and  finally  dema- 
gogues and  politicians  of  all  colors  trample  the  heels  of 
each  other  to  secure  the  honor  of  carrying  their  banner. 
Imitators  beg  permission  to  whitewash  the  martyrs' 
tombs  and  renew  the  fading  names  of  the  eponyms  on 
the  monuments.  Thus  Howard,  Pestalozzi,  Wichern, 
Channing,  Garrison,  and  other  leaders  of  men  gain 


Introduction.  19 


ground  and  plant  their  flags  on  conquered  territory. 
The  chief  functions  of  voluntary  associations  in  such 
fonvard  movements  are  :  to  investigate  the  subject  of 
social  need,  and  to  discover  the  pain  and  loss  ;  to  study  Functions  of 

J     voluntary 

all  that  has  hitherto  been  attempted  in  the  right  direc-  associations, 
tion,  and  lay  the  experience  of  mankind  under  tribute  ; 
to  encourage  the  pioneers  ;  to  inform  the  workers  ;  to 
develop  plans  and  secure  means  ;  to  agitate  and  create 
public  opinion  ;  to  send  lobbies  to  councils  and  legisla- 
tures ;  to  watch  the  administration  of  their  measures 
and  see  to  it  that  they  are  not  mutilated  and  defeated  by 
ignorance  or  selfishness  ;  to  improve  and  guide  the  work 
until  it  has  been  assimilated  in  the  life  of  the  community; 
and  to  undertake  any  work  not  suitable  for  the  state  or 
other  stable  form  of  society. 

It  is  common  to  speak  of  "problems,"  and  the  word 
expresses  a  fact.     Where   an   innovation   has  become 

,.  .  Debatable 

general  and  customary  there  is  no  dispute,  there  is  no  questions, 
problem.  Where  all  agree  no  one  asks  a  social  ques- 
tion. The  sociologist  then  simply  describes  and  explains 
a  system  of  industry,  government,  or  recreation  as  a  bi- 
ologist might  describe  and  explain  the  structure  and  life 
of  a  crab.  But  when  a  minority  of  the  community 
become  satisfied  that  the  majority  are  moving  in  a 
wrong  path  or  are  moving  too  slowly  in  the  right  direc- 
tion, then  arises  a  burning  social  question.  The  aboli- 
tion of  slavery  may  be  taken  as  an  illustration.  The 
great  majority  of  our  people  before  the  Civil  War  had 
come  to  think  of  slavery  as  the  "  peculiar  institution  " 
which  properly  belonged  to  the  South,  natural  and  suit- 
able there  as  the  wage  system  was  natural  and  suitable 
to  the  North.  But  a  large  number  of  earnest  and  gifted 
persons  felt  that  this  system  tended  to  poverty,  to  spirit- 
ual degradation,  and  to  injustice.  These  persons  sought 


20 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Our  purpose 
an'd  limits. 


Nature  of 
civilization. 


Variety  of 
service. 


to  make  their  view  dominate  the  thought,  the  feeling, 
and  the  conduct  of  the  nation.  They  came  into  collision 
with  the  interests  and  beliefs  of  the  majority.  This  led 
to  dispute  and  finally  to  war.  In  the  ensuing  struggle 
the  views  of  the  minority  prevailed  and  the  fittest  sur- 
vived. Slavery  was  no  longer  a  problem. 

These  pages  may  be  read  by  the  electric  light  of 
a  city  parlor  or  under  the  shaded  lamp  of  a  farmer' s  iso- 
lated home.  City  and  farm  are  organic  parts  of  a  com- 
mon country.  In  some  places  there  is  a  surplus  of 
wants,  and  in  others  there  is  a  surplus  of  resources. 
Here  let  us  study  how  to  bring  wants  and  resources  to- 
gether. One  may  find  little  here  upon  the  duties  of  the 
great.  The  author  does  not  pretend  to  dictate  policies 
to  experts  in  business  and  statecraft.  And  yet  the 
things  here  discussed  are  the  supreme  interests  of 
millions  of  our  fellows.  The  national  happiness  depends 
on  many  small  satisfactions  which  senators  at  Washing- 
ton seldom  think  worthy  of  notice.  The  real  terminus 
of  every  great  railroad  is  a  threshold.  Empires  find 
their  reason  for  being  in  the  family  circle. 

Lord  Russell,  lord  chief  justice  of  England,  said  in 
1896,  before  the  American  Bar  Association  : 

Civilization  is  not  a  veneer  ;  it  must  penetrate  to  the  very 
heart  and  core  of  societies  of  men.  Its  true  signs  are  thoughts 
for  the  poor  and  suffering,  chivalrous  regard  and  respect  for 
woman,  the  frank  recognition  of  human  brotherhood,  irrespect- 
ive of  race,  or  color,  or  nation,  or  religion,  the  narrowing  of  the 
domain  of  mere  force  as  a  governing  factor  in  the  world,  the 
love  of  ordered  freedom,  abhorrence  of  what  is  mean  and  cruel 
and  vile,  ceaseless  devotion  to  the  claims  of  justice. 

Many  ways  of  doing  good  are  brought  to  light.  The 
reader  must  select  from  the  menu  the  dish  which  agrees 
with  his  taste  and  constitution.  It  is  not  expected  that 


Introduction.  21 


each  dish  will  suit  all.  It  is  not  probable  that  any 
of  these  schemes  will  be  copied  exactly.  But  we  are 
at  least  dealing  with  facts  and  actual  works  more  than 
with  castles  in  the  air.  The  example  of  a  real  work 
of  goodness  is  a  candle  which  casts  its  beams  far  over 
the  troubled  waves  of  life. 

It  is  a  day  of  specialization  and  the  tendency  to  take 
up  and  develop  particular  branches  of  social  service  is  as  Specialization 

....  .  .      in  philanthropy. 

necessary  in  philanthropy  as  it  is  in  science  or  in  busi- 
ness. Some  provision  is  made  for  this  in  the  references 
to  special  treatises  which  may  be  found  in  the  appendix. 
But  there  is  also  need  for  integration  and  unification. 
Before  there  can  be  unity,  harmony,  and  good-will 
in  philanthropy  there  must  be  a  general  understanding 
of  the  system  of  special  parts  which  make  up  the  whole. 
Each  worker  should  seek  to  discover  the  relations  of  his 
own  little  fragment  with  the  separate  fragments  con- 
nected with  the  life  of  the  same  community.  Dr.  Hale 
says  that  philanthropists  hate  each  other.  It  is  too  true, 
but  it  is  not  necessary.  The  cavalry,  the  artillery,  and 
the  infantry  support  each  other  in  the  evolutions  of  an 
army  and  in  the  conduct  of  battle.  So  in  the  peaceful 
enterprises  of  justice  and  goodness  the  various  societies 
are  related  and  complementary.  Such  a  survey  as  is 
here  attempted  may  assist  active  workers  in  limited 
fields  to  appreciate  the  kindred  labors  of  others  ;  may 
increase  the  feeling  of  fellowship  ;  may  lead  to  rational  Members  of 
cooperation  ;  may  enable  those  who  are  prone  to  regard 
with  suspicion  if  not  contempt  the  efforts  of  neighbors 
to  hold  them  in  honor  and  esteem.  The  most  con- 
spicuous sociologist  among  the  Germans  has  placed  on 
the  title  page  of  both  editions  of  his  great  work  a  quo- 
tation from  Paul's  letter  to  the  Corinthians,  twelfth 
chapter  :  ' '  Now  there  are  diversities  of  gifts,  but  the 


22  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

same  Spirit.  .  .  The  body  is  one  and  has  many  mem- 
bers. ' '  This  figure  drawn  from  human  physiology  had 
been  used  in  a  critical  period  of  Roman  history  and  is 
employed  by  Shakespeare.  In  the  New  Testament 
passage  the  biological  analogies  of  diversity  and  unity 
members  ^eac^  onward  to  the  sublime  Psalm  of  Charity  which  fol- 

lows. In  the  one  chapter  all  gifts  are  recognized,  in  the 
other  all  virtues  and  duties  are  traced  to  one  root.  The 
analogy  suggests  an  explanation  and  serves  as  an  argu- 
ment. By  this  better  understanding  wasteful  methods 
may  be  brought  under  the  regulative  control  of  enlight- 
ened public  opinion.  The  mob  may  become  an  army. 

The  old  order  changeth,  yielding  place  to  new, 

And  God  fulfills  himself  in  many  ways, 

Lest  one  good  custom  should  corrupt  the  world. 

Comfort  thyself ;  what  comfort  is  in  me  ? 

I  have  lived  my  life,  and  that  which  I  have  done 

May  He  within  himself  make  pure. 

—  Tennyson. 


CHAPTER  II. 

HOME-MAKING   AS    A   SOCIAL    ART. 

A  FAMILY  in  our  time  and  land  means  a  group  of 
persons  united  by  the  bond  of  near  relationship.  A  member»- 
larger  word  is  household,  since  this  may  include  not 
only  parents  and  children,  but  also  aged  relatives, 
dependent  friends  in  the  house,  domestic  servants, 
boarders,  and  even  guests.  The  word  home  means  the 
family  and  its  residence,  with  a  thousand  objects  and 
memories  which  surround  the  word  with  sentiments 
beautiful  and  tender. 

Society  grows  in  bulk  from  the  additions  by  births  to  Social 
each  home.  The  married  couple  becomes  a  group.  function8- 
The  children  must  be  nourished  and  brought  up  to 
maturity  by  the  toils  and  fostering  care  of  the  parents. 
If  for  any  reason  parental  duty  remains  neglected  then 
the  neighborhood,  the  church,  the  state  must  supply 
the  defect ;  and  that  means  that  certain  persons,  per- 
haps in  addition  to  their  own  duties,  must  carry  part  of 
the  duty  of  others.  Thus  we  see  that  all  society  is 
interested  in  the  conduct  and  welfare  of  each  family.  If 
the  children  are  poorly  fed  and  scantily  clothed  in 
winter,  or  set  to  exhausting  labor  too  early ;  or  if  the 
house  is  unhealthy  ;  if  cleanliness  is  a  lost  art ;  if  food 
gives  dyspepsia  instead  of  strength  ;  if  fuel  fails  when 
frost  bites  hard — then  society  finds  upon  its  hands  a 
heavier  tax  for  cripples,  insane,  feeble-minded,  and 
paupers. 

It  is  in  the  home  that  children   learn  the  national 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Forms  and 
development. 


Social  interests 
at  stake. 


language,  receive  their  first  and  most  enduring  impres- 
sions about  industry,  nature,  morality,  religion,  their 
country.  It  is  in  the  family,  if  anywhere,  that  all 
citizens  learn  the  first  lessons  of  obedience,  thrift,  use- 
fulness, order,  self-sacrifice,  cooperation,  which  are 
essential  virtues  in  the  general  life  of  mankind,  and  the 
essential  preparation  for  the  society  of  the  heavenly 
world. 

The  household  has  passed  through  many  forms  in  the 
past  ages.  Savages  and  barbarians  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  modes  of  existence  which  would  be  intolerable 
and  immoral  with  us.  Almost  every  possible  experi- 
ment has  been  tried  with  this  institution  in  the  course  of 
history  —  polyandry,  promiscuous  intercourse  without 
regular  marriage,  polygamy,  monogamy.  Many  of  the 
lauded  recommendations  of  professed  reformers  in  our 
age  are  merely  proposals  to  go  back  to  obsolete  and 
rejected  customs  of  lower  stages  of  civilization.  Many 
changes  may  be  expected  in  the  domestic  relations,  but 
the  claim  of  the  Christian  form  of  marriage  to  be  per- 
manent and  universal  has  been  vindicated  by  the  sad 
results  of  all  departures  from  that  type  and  by  the 
consensus  of  the  moral  judgments  of  the  most  advanced 
peoples.  All  modern  states  have  sought  to  mold,  by 
custom,  sentiment,  and  legislation,  the  form  of  the 
family  to  correspond  to  the  demands  of  the  general 
welfare.  For  marriage  is  not  a  mere  private  affair  to 
be  left  to  individual  caprice,  to  lawless  passion,  to  selfish 
individualism.  There  is  an  immense  social  interest  at 
stake  and  the  community  is  obliged  to  regulate  this 
relation  so  as  to  promote  the  common  welfare.  Thus 
the  state  has  taken  away  from  the  father  his  ancient  right 
to  put  his  son  to  death,  from  the  husband  his  right  to 
whip  his  wife  into  obedience,  and  from  both  parents  the 


Home- Making  as  a  Social  Art.  25 

right  to  dispose  of  their  property  without  regard  to  the 
happiness  of  dependent  members. 

Each  community  has  a  rule  by  which  it  judges  what  is 
conducive  to  the  common  happiness,  and  it  insists,  j?onductds  °f 
by  force  if  necessary,  upon  the  observance  of  that  rule. 
If  parents  or  children  choose  to  act  contrary  to  the 
ordinary  belief  they  will  soon  feel  the  stinging  shafts  of 
hostile  criticism  ;  they  may  be  suspected,  detested, 
shunned.  If  they  go  too  far  in  their  defiance  of  pub- 
lic opinion  they  are  liable  to  arrest  and  punishment. 
The  social  standard  is  expressed  not  only  in  state  laws, 
but  also  in  church  discipline,  in  maxims,  and  customs. 
In  communities  where  the  Christian  creed  is  dominant 
the  usual  standard  requires  that  every  marriage  should 
be  free  and  voluntary,  without  force  or  constraint ;  that 
no  one  marry  under  a  suitable  age  ;  that  very  near  rela- 
tives shall  not  marry  ;  that  a  man  shall  have  but  one  Christian  law- 
living  wife,  and  a  wife  but  one  living  husband  ;  that 
life-long  fidelity  shall  be  kept  sacred  ;  and  that  divorce 
shall  be  granted  only  for  urgent  and  serious  reasons  and 
after  mature  deliberation.  Our  usages  and  laws  require 
parents  to  fulfill  the  duties  of  support  and  education  for 
citizenship  ;  demand  that  children  care  for  parents  in 
the  helplessness  of  old  age  ;  and  exacts  purity,  modesty, 
and  chastity  of  all.  These  rules  are  by  no  means  ex- 
actly alike  in  all  Christian  states,  and  they  are  only  too 
frequently  violated  ;  but  the  ideal  of  conduct  is  held 
aloft,  is  constantly  made  more  pure,  and  is  enforced 
with  greater  care.  The  present  apparent  relaxation  of 
morals  is  only  an  eddy  in  the  great  current  of  history 
and  by  no  means  represents  the  spirit  of  the  age  at  its 
best. 

If  we  seek  to  apply  these  criteria  to  actual  conditions  Defect$ 
we  discover  many  pathetic  consequences  of  the  lawless- 


a6  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

ness  or  the  misfortunes  which  represent  a  departure 
from  the  ideals.  In  some  homes  we  merely  notice  a 
stagnation  or  inferior  level  of  refinement,  intelligence,  or 

Domestic  spiritual  life  ;  in  other  instances  there  is  positive  misery. 

Only  those  %\ho  have  surveyed  and  explored  the  habita- 
tions of  the  poor  in  great  cities,  and  who  have  studied 
the  oriental  barbarism  of  luxurious  vice  in  many  fashion- 
able circles,  can  conceive  the  misery  and  the  cruelty,  the 
baseness  and  the  pain,  the  tragic  issues  and  the  dis- 
couraging products  of  family  life  where  the  finer  nature 
is  corrupted  by  external  circumstances  or  from  inward 
depravity.  Follow  the  city  missionary,  charity  visitor, 
or  sanitary  policeman  into  the  crowded  flats  of  any  large 
city.  There  is  insufficient  breathing  space  ;  people  are 
crowded  so  closely  that  the  danger  of  collision  and  dis- 
pute is  ever  present  ;  the  entire  horde  may  be  huddled 
together  in  one  room  —  men,  women,  children,  and 
boarders — where  modesty  must  be  a  stranger.  Ventila- 
tion is  so  defective  that  the  lungs  are  ever  full  of  noxious 
exhalations.  Many  of  the  interior  rooms  are  never  once 
brightened  with  a  direct  ray  of  light.  When  the  last 
basket  of  coal  is  gone  the  cold  rushes  in  to  give  the 
mortal  stroke  to  human  patience  and  hope.  In  the 
summer  those  v,  ho  have  toiled  all  day  in  a  sweat-shop 
lie  gasping  for  air  on  the  roofs  or  curb,  or  in  alleys. 

Think  of  the  inadequate  cooking  apparatus  of  the 
poor  ;  of  the  burnt  and  spoiled  food,  bought  in  markets 
where  no  one  buys  unless  his  money  is  low,  where 

Moral  meaning  deception  is  rife,  where  adulteration  is  unchecked.  Is  it 
Jre'  any  great  wonder  that  men  take  to  alcoholic  drinks 
when  such  meals  leave  them  with  indefinable  cravings 
and  demonic  gnawings  ?  What  furniture  !  The  very 
look  of  it  makes  the  soul  ugly.  The  books,  the  papers, 
are  poison  to  the  spirit.  Instruments  of  music  are  un- 


Home-Making  as  a  Social  Art.  27 

known.  We  are  speaking  of  extreme  cases,  but  the 
pity  is  that  there  are  multitudes  of  extreme  cases  in  this 
rich  land.  The  wages  of  the  father  do  not  always  sup- 
port the  family  even  when  he  is  employed,  ?nd  tne  pos-  LOW  wages, 
sibility  of  being  out  of  work  hovers  over  him  always. 
He  may  be  a  vagabond  or  drunkard,  but  he  may  have 
become  all  that  through  the  vicissitudes  of  trade  and 
manufactures  which  trained  him  to  reason  like  a  gambler 
and  often  left  him  in  despair.  It  is  no  answer  to  this 
plea  that  the  average  of  wages  shows  prosperity.  Long 
ago  Charles  Dickens  exposed  in  "Hard  Times"  the 
fallacy  of  soothing  consciences  by  studying  tables  of 
averages.  No  one  who  has  not  become  familiar  with 
the  concrete  facts  of  life  has  a  right  to  a  judgment. 

Look  at  some  of  the  fruits  of  such  home  life,  under 
such  accursed  conditions.      Study  the  reports  of  factory  Results  of 

J  .  .  J     defects  in  the 

inspectors  and  labor  bureaus,  or  visit  great  department  dwelling. 
stores  and  shops  where  child-labor  can  be  used  and 
where  rigid  law  has  not  counteracted  the  merciless 
progress  of  machine  industry,  and  you  will  be  dis- 
tressed to  find  that  many  children  who  ought  ic  be  in 
school  are  fixed  in  the  unpitying  mills  of  manufacture 
and  trade.  Their  pittance  of  earnings  is  necessary  to 
sustain  the  family.  One  may  often  find  a  child  tend- 
ing a  machine  while  his  father  is  seeking  in  vain  for 
occupation — the  babe  the  successful  competitor  for  a 
place  against  his  natural  supporter.  That  is  cheap  labor 
at  war  with  the  home.  Such  homes  turn  out  thieves, 
tramps,  and  abandoned  girls.  They  fill  insane  asylums 
and  prisons.  The  coroner's  list  of  suicides  is  full  of 
horrors,  and  reveals  the  tragedies  of  our  imperfect 
industrial  arrangements. 

And  what  happens  to  the  home  when  the  mother  is 
compelled  to  work  in  a  modern,  fectory  ten  hours,  par- 


28 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Mothers  in 
factories. 


Temptations 
of  youth. 


haps  a  long  distance  from  home  ?  There  is  less  of  this 
evil  in  America  than  abroad,  but  there  is  too  much. 
Most  of  us  think  that  a  mother  needs  all  her  time  and 
strength  for  young  children,  even  when  she  has  cook, 
nurse,  and  governess.  But  try  to  imagine  a  mother 
walking  a  mile  to  the  shop,  toiling  the  long  day  at  a 
machine  speeded  to  the  American  rate,  a  machine  that 
never  feels  nerves  and  never  shows  pity.  Think  of  her 
coming  back  after  dark  to  her  children,  weary,  jaded, 
fretful,  desperate.  Tidiness,  cleanliness,  happiness  are 
impossible.  Existence  is  on  the  animal  plane.  The 
husband  has  no  chance  to  cultivate  a  human  quality  and 
the  saloon  seems  to  him  a  paradise.  Such  men  move  in 
a  fatal  circle :  their  drink  habits  impoverish  the  homes, 
and  the  squalor  and  suffering  of  the  home  drive  them  to 
the  saloon. 

When  girls  brought  up  in  such  homes  seek  employ- 
ment as  cooks,  housemaids,  nurses  of  children,  they  are 
often  found  to  be  coarse,  rude,  insolent,  incompetent, 
vexatious.  Why  should  we  be  surprised  at  this?  Is  it 
not  entirely  natural  ?  The  splendid  mansion  is  made 
miserable  because  it  has  neglected  the  education  of  the 
poor.  Society  is  a  body  whose  nerves  of  sensation  form 
a  single  system,  and  when  one  member  suffers  all  suffer 
together.  If,  says  one,  the  tooth  is  aching,  the  rest  of 
the  body  must  stay  awake  all  night  to  keep  it  company. 

Family  life  is  disgraced  and  darkened  by  the  inde- 
scribable and  unspeakable  vices  which  enfeeble  and  cor- 
rupt youth.  These  same  evils  of  licentiousness  are  found 
in  villages  and  rural  communities.  Young  boys  and  girls 
are  permitted  to  roam  the  streets  after  school  and  even 
after  dark,  exposed  to  temptation  and  to  the  influence 
of  hardened  offenders.  We  remember  an  evening  in  a 
Swiss  village  when  the  church  bell  summoned  all  chil- 


Home-Making  as  a  Social  Art.  29 

dren  to  their  homes,  their  prayers,  and  their  beds  at 
nightfall.  There  is  some  hope  that  the  same  civilizing 
curfew  bell,  or  some  substitute  for  it,  may  be  heard  in 
all  this  great  land.  Rebellious,  disorderly,  selfish,  un-  Bad  boys  from 

*  '  bad  homes. 

disciplined  children  grow  up  to  be  annoyances  or  pests 
of  society.  The  Sixteenth  Year-Book  of  the  New  York 
State  Reformatory  gives  the  antecedents  of  the  prison- 
ers. According  to  the  returns  2,550,  or  52.6  per  cent, 
of  the  inmates  came  from  homes  that  were  positively 
bad,  and  only  373,  or  7.6  per  cent,  came  from  homes 
that  were  positively  good.  In  England  we  discover  sim- 
ilar conditions.  Out  of  1,085  juveniles  committed  to 
reformatory  schools  in  1892,  only  425  were  living  under 
the  control  of  both  parents.  All  the  others  had  only 
one  parent,  or  had  one  or  both  parents  in  prison,  or 
had  been  deserted  by  their  parents  altogether.  (Mor- 
rison. ) 

The  family  cannot  be  absolutely  self-sufficing.  Each 
group  of  human  beings  must  have  help  of  the  neighbor-  element. 
hood,  the  church,  the  school,  the  legal  organization. 
But  all  the  elements  of  a  complete  and  happy  life  should 
be  found  in  the  domestic  circle.  Not  only  should  the 
physical  wants  be  supplied,  food,  clothing,  shelter,  and 
comfort,  but  the  intellectual  atmosphere  should  be 
charged  with  high  thoughts  and  inspiring  interests,  and 
the  mental  growth  should  be  assisted  by  papers,  books, 
maps,  and  other  instruments  of  knowledge.  The  sense 
of  beauty  should  be  satisfied  and  improved  by  pictures, 
music,  verse.  The  interchange  of  ideas  and  sentiments 
should  refine  and  stimulate  the  sociable  impulses,  while 
the  virtue  of  hospitality  will  constantly  import  into  the 
sacred  circle  fresh  materials  from  without.  A  joyful 
obedience  to  the  principles  of  common  welfare  should 
shape  conduct,  while  the  religious  life  of  home  becomes 


3o  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

the  supreme  element  of  joy,  peace,  good-will,  and  hope. 
Especially  is  it  necessary  in  the  lonely  and  isolated  coun- 
try home,  unfortunately  too  common  in  America,  that 
all  the  essential  elements  of  a  complete  life  should  be 
provided.  Patriotic  piety  cannot  render  a  higher  serv- 
ice than  to  devise  ways  of  enriching  and  elevating  the 
existence  of  these  primary  social  units. 

Here  is  the  point  to  notice  the  evils  of  alcoholism  and 

kindred   vices.     The  fight  against  the  saloon  and   its 

The  ravages  of   black  allies  is  a  contest  on  behalf  of  the  home  and  all  it 

intemperance 

in  the  family.  represents  for  civilization.  Perhaps  Max  Nordau1  has 
exaggerated  the  symptoms  of  degeneration  and  has  mis- 
directed some  of  his  shafts  of  criticism  of  men,  books, 
and  works  of  art ;  but  he  may  be  regarded  as  an  impar- 
tial witness  in  respect  to  the  perils  of  intemperance. 
"Morel,  the  great  investigator  of  degeneracy,  traces 
this  chiefly  to  poisoning.  A  race  which  is  regularly 
addicted,  even  without  excess,  to  narcotics  and  stimu- 
lants, in  any  form  (such  as  fermented  alcoholic  drinks, 
tobacco,  opium,  hashish,  arsenic),  which  partakes  of 
tainted  foods  (bread  made  of  bad  corn),  which  absorbs 
organic  poisons  (marsh  fever,  syphilis,  tuberculosis,  goi- 
tre), begets  degenerate  descendants  who,  if  they  remain 
exposed  to  the  same  influences,  rapidly  descend  to  the 
lowest  degrees  of  degeneracy,  to  idiocy,  to  dwarfishness, 

Other  causes  of  , ,        _    ,  .,  ,         .  -   . 

degeneration,  etc.  Other  causes  contribute  to  the  production  of  in- 
ferior, feeble,  idiotic,  and  insane  persons  :  as  the  crowded 
life  of  cities  ;  rapid  movement  of  travel ;  jars  and  noises ; 
multiplication  of  impressions  ;  keen  competition ;  haste 
to  be  rich  ;  uncertainty  of  employment ;  hunger  for  sen- 
sational pleasures.  But  the  poisonous  drinks  and  drugs 
which  are  consumed  by  modern  peoples  destroy  vitality, 
arouse  and  stimulate  the  selfish  passions,  let  loose  the 

i  "  Degeneration,"  page  34.    Morel,  "  Trait6  des  De'ge'nerescences." 


Home- Making  as  a  Social  Art.  31 

dangerous  beasts  that  make  their  lair  in  every  human 
being,  and  turn  home  into  purgatory. 

The  culmination  and  publication  of  domestic  failure  is 
divorce.  It  is  the  advertisement  of  family  misery,  and  Divorc 
lifts  the  curtain  which  hides  individual  wrong-doing. 
There  are  acts  worse  than  divorce  itself,  fearful  as  are  its 
social  disgrace  and  consequences.  Selfishness,  unkind- 
ness,  impurity,  and  brutality  are  the  deep  disease  of 
which  divorce  is  the  symptom.  Such  evils  exist  where 
divorce  is  almost  unknown.  We  cannot  judge  abso- 
lutely of  the  morality  of  a  people  by  statistics  of  decrees 
of  separation.  At  a  later  point  we  shall  notice  the  social 
movement  to  counteract  the  tendency  to  divorce.  But, 
after  all,  the  family  must  defend  itself.  All  that  makes 
the  homes  of  our  country  pure,  happy,  contented,  relig- 
ious, is  a  preventive  measure  against  divorce.  The 
best  remedies  are  prophylactic,  those  which  keep  the 
peril  not  only  at  arm's  length,  but  entirely  out  of  sight, 
hearing,  and  thought. 

Our  quest  for  ways  of  doing  good  begins  where  life 

Amelioration. 

and  charity  begin — at  home.  Each  human  being  starts 
out  in  life  with  hungry  cries  for  nourishment.  We  may 
set  down  in  our  survey  improved  methods  of  housekeep- 
ing. Since  most  of  the  income  of  the  family  usually 
comes  from  social  service  of  bread-winners  we  may 
defer  the  discussion  of  better  wages  to  a  subsequent 
chapter.  The  original  meaning  of  economics  was  the 
law  of  the  house,  and  we  here  return  to  that  primitive 
idea.  In  the  country  it  is  possible  to  produce  upon  the 
premises  much  of  the  food  and  fuel  for  home  consump- 
tion. In  cities  almost  nothing  is  produced,  save  articles 
of  household  use  for  immediate  consumption.  Spinning, 
weaving,  tanning  skins,  manufacture  of  clothing,  prep- 
aration of  flour,  building  of  houses,  making  of  harness 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Household 
accounts. 


Instruction 
in  cooking. 


and  vehicles,  of  implements  and  utensils,  are  carried  on 
in  great  factories  provided  with  powerful  and  efficient 
machinery. 

When  once  the  goods  are  ready  for  consumption  the 
economic  activity  of  the  household  begins.  In  many 
parts  of  Germany  thrifty  housewives  have  long  had  the 
laudable  custom  of  keeping  accounts  of  receipts  and 
expenditures.  There  are  many  advantages  in  this  cus- 
tom. It  fosters  thrift,  makes  possible  a  wiser  distribu- 
tion of  resources,  enables  social  students  to  make 
accurate  statistical  calculations  as  to  real  wages,  the 
cost  of  living,  and  the  actual  effects  of  our  industrial 
system  on  the  people.  The  Le  Play  societies  in  France 
have  been  collecting  such  information  for  many  years 
and  such  studies  should  be  prosecuted  in  this  country. 
(See  appendix.) 

Bread  is  the  staff  of  life,  and  bread  sustains  us  all  the 
better  if  it  is  well  cooked  and  is  accompanied  by  other 
foods  and  condiments.  A  newsboy  in  a  mission  meeting 
joined  in  the  Lord's  Prayer  until  they  came  to  the  peti- 
tion, "Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread,"  and  then 
broke  in  with  the  irreverent  gloss,  ' '  and  butter  on  it. ' ' 
Only  a  very  poor  boy  would  have  thought  of  adding 
that  phrase,  even  in  mirth,  since  most  of  us  take  our 
dainties  as  a  matter  of  course.  Cooking  is  a  fine  art — 
where  the  food  is  fine.  Ignorance  does  much  damage 
in  the  kitchen  and  in  the  stomach.  Where  the  mother 
is  an  artist  she  can  instruct  her  daughters.  Church 
sewing  circles  and  ordinary  visiting  calls  are  schools  of 
housekeepers.  Talk  about  recipes  for  nice  dishes  is  not 
gossip  ;  it  is  professional  discussion.  We  may  speak  of 
household  art  and  science  as  a  branch  of  education  when 
we  come  to  consider  improvements  of  our  schools. 

The  great  industry  is  crowding  out  the  small  industry. 


Home- Making  as  a  Social  Art.  33 

Consolidation  has  so  many  advantages  that  it  is  adopted 
everywhere.  Little  shoe  shops  yield  to  huge  factories. 
Small  stores  succumb  to  vast  department  magazines. 
We  must  not  think  that  the  industry  of  housekeeping 
will  escape  this  universal  tendency.  In  crowded  cities 
even  millionaires  seldom  have  a  front  yard.  The  mag- 
nates of  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York,  build  their  palaces  up 
to  the  sidewalk.  The  occupants  of  a  solid  block  of  flats 
are  numbered  by  the  hundreds.  Clothing  and  utensils 
are  already  bought  in  the  market.  Food  supplies  are 
not  heaped  up  in  the  cellar,  for  there  is  no  cellar  to  a 
flat.  And  now  the  tendency  is  to  form  a  partnership  of  Cooperative 

.....  ...  .  .  .  housekeeping 

families  in  a  common  kitchen,  sometimes  with  a  common  >n  cities, 
table.  Many  families  rent  rooms  and  take  their  meals 
at  restaurants.  But  this  is  felt  to  be  objectionable 
because  it  disturbs  family  privacy  and  introduces  alien 
elements.  It  is  not  agreeable  to  chastise  a  youngster 
before  all  the  neighbors,  and  the  youngster  has  the  wit 
to  take  advantake  of  parental  reluctance.  There  are 
good  reasons  for  the  movement  to  build  a  large  number 
of  dwellings  about  a  common  kitchen,  with  a  common 
heating  apparatus  and  janitor  service,  while  the  family 
itself  is  able  to  retain  its  own  living  rooms  separate  from 
all  others.  Experiments  have  been  tried  with  this  plan, 
and  the  difficulty  of  securing  and  retaining  competent 
cooks  has  hastened  the  change.  But  the  traditions  and 
sentiments  of  the  ages  are  not  easily  and  quickly 
broken,  and  the  advantages  of  privacy  ought  not  to 
be  surrendered  so  long  as  it  is  possible  to  avoid  the  sac- 
rifice. There  is  room  for  invention  and  experiment  in 
this  field  for  architects  as  well  as  for  associations  and 
corporations. 

Next  to  food  our  clothing  is  a  necessity  of  existence. 
Suitable  dress  is  a  necessity  of  a  beautiful  life.     Rich  r 


34 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Care  of  the 
domicile. 


Homes  of 
luxury. 


people  may  be  able  to  afford  waste,  but  hard-working 
men  ought  not  to  be  compelled  to  lose  the  results  of  toil 
in  expenditures  on  ill-fitting  and  shoddy  garments.  The 
wife  of  a  mechanic  who  has  been  taught  in  girlhood 
to  sew  and  mend  and  darn  is  able  to  multiply  the  pur- 
chasing power  of  her  husband's  wages.  Philanthropy 
has  found  a  field  in  the  schools  for  teaching  women  how 
to  make  the  most  of  their  materials  of  dress. 

To  the  mother  is  intrusted  the  domicile.  She  needs 
to  be  a  sanitary  engineer.  She  ought  to  be  taught 
what  the  microscope  has  revealed  in  the  realm  of  bacte- 
riology. She  ought  to  know  the  mysteries  of  actinism, 
the  physiological  value  of  oxygen,  the  significance  of 
smells,  the  perils  of  decay,  the  lurking  dangers  of  pipes 
and  sewers.  Every  modern  science  contributes  to  the 
health  and  happiness  of  home,  but  only  those  who  have 
eyes  opened  by  instruction  are  able  to  see.  In  dark 
and  unclean  homes  diphtheria  and  typhus,  scourges  of 
filth,  often  take  their  rise,  and  thence  they  spread  to 
afflict  the  refined  and  the  rich  and  instruct  us  all  in 
social  solidarity.  Fevers  begin  where  ignorance  permits 
accumulation  of  decaying  matter,  and  strong  workmen 
are  reduced  to  weakness,  poverty,  and  despair.  Milk 
and  water,  necessaries  of  life,  are  the  media  of  deadly 
germs,  unless  science  has  made  itself  literally  at  home 
with  the  housemother.  And  who  shall  teach  the 
mothers?  We  shall  see. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  imagine  that  houses  of  poverty  are 
the  only  fields  which  require  the  inspiring,  cleansing, 
and  renovating  energies  of  the  social  spirit.  Social 
progress  ought  to  begin  with  those  who  have  the  wealth 
to  command  the  finest  privileges.  Dr.  Male's  inventive 
genius  has  suggested  that  we  need  a  society  for  giving 
occupation  to  the  rich.  We  may  add  that  many  of  the 


Home-Making  as  a  Social  Art.  35 

busiest  people  are  not  busy  with  work  that  is  socially 
useful.  Idleness,  extravagance,  waste,  anti-social  de- 
struction  of  wealth,  coarse  and  insolent  parade,  and 
barbaric  ostentation  are  sins  of  luxury.  Under  the 
powerful  law  of  social  imitation  these  hurtful  habits  are 
carried  outward  in  widening  circles  and  copied  by  those 
whose  narrow  means  make  extravagance  ruinous.  Os- 
tentation arouses  envy,  exasperates  class  feeling,  in- 
creases bitterness  of  contrasts,  and  imperils  order.  In 
delightful  contrast  with  the  absurd  and  coarse  conduct 
of  the  new  rich  is  the  elegant  simplicity  of  those  who 
have  grown  within  as  their  wealth  increased  without ; 
who  know  how  to  use  their  means  under  the  severe  laws 
of  refined  taste,  and  how  to  socialize  their  expenditure 
by  providing  public  grounds,  galleries,  libraries,  means 
of  recreation  and  culture. 

We  are  not  making  a  plea  for  a  return  to  the  simplic- 
ity of  the  savage  with  his  objectionable  costume  and  his  Meaning  of 
miserable  hut.  There  is  a  wise  and  economical  expendi- 
ture which  actually  enriches  the  owner  and  helps  him  to 
multiply  the  joys  of  others.  If  it  cost  a  million  dollars  a 
year  to  support  a  Shakespeare  or  a  Beethoven  it  would 
be  a  low  price  for  the  product.  Unfortunately  many  of 
the  people  who  spend  the  most  money  on  themselves  do 
not  belong  in  the  same  rank  with  those  worthies.  Plain 
living,  high  thinking,  and  generous  recognition  of  the 
democracy  are  natural  companions.  Money  honestly 
earned  and  carefully  spent  for  real  and  wholesome  satis- 
factions is  not  wasted.  Those  who  have  the  widest 
range  of  rational  pleasures  are  best  fitted  to  diffuse  light 
and  hope  about  them. 

Octavia  Hill,  whose  eminent  services  in  a  life  devoted 

Octavla  Hill. 

to  the  poor  give  her  words  the  weight  of  gold,  says  : 
Much  has  been  written  of  late  on  the  subject  of  sisterhoods 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Consecration  of 
cheerfulness. 


The  smile  cure. 


and  of  "  homes,"  where  those  who  wish  to  devote  themselves  to 
the  services  of  the  poor  can  live  together,  consecrating  their 
whole  life  to  the  work.  I  must  here  express  my  conviction 
that  we  want  very  much  more  influence  that  emanates  not  from 
a  "home,"  but  from  homes.  One  looks  with  reverence  on  the 
devotion  of  those  who,  leaving  domestic  life,  are  ready  to  sac- 
rifice all  in  the  cause  of  the  poor,  and  give  up  time,  health,  and 
strength  in  the  effort  to  diminish  the  great  mass  of  sin  and  sor- 
row that  is  in  the  world.  I  have  seen  faces  shining  like  St. 
Stephen's  with  sight  of  heaven  beyond  the  pain  and  sin.  I  have 
seen  shoulders  bent  as  St.  Christopher's  might  have  been — 
better  in  angels'  sight  than  upright  ones.  I  have  seen  hair 
turned  gray  by  sorrow  shared  with  others.  And  before  such 
one  bends  with  reverence. 

But  I  am  sure  we  ought  to  desire  to  have  as  workers  joyful, 
strong,  many-sided  natures  ;  and  that  the  poor,  tenderly  as  they 
may  cling  to  those  who,  as  it  were,  cast  in  their  lots  amongst 
them,  are  better  for  the  bright  visits  of  those  who  are  strong, 
happy,  and  sympathetic. 

"Send  me,"  said  one  day  a  poor  woman,  who  did  not  even 
know  the  visitor's  name,  "the  lady  with  the  sweet  smile  and 
the  bright  golden  hair." 

The  work  among  the  poor  is,  in  short,  better  done  by  those  who 
do  less  of  it,  or  rather,  who  gain  strength  and  brightness  in  other 
ways.  I  hope  for  a  return  to  the  old  fellowship  between  rich  and 
poor  ;  to  a  solemn  sense  of  relationship;  to  quiet  life  side  by  side; 
to  men  and  women  coming  out  from  bright,  good,  simple  homes, 
to  see,  teach,  and  learn  from  the  poor  ;  returning  to  gather  fresh 
strength  from  home-warmth  and  love,  and  seeing  in  their  own 
homes  something  of  the  spirit  which  should  pervade  all. 

I  believe  that  educated  people  would  come  forward  if  once 
they  saw  how  they  could  be  really  useful,  and  without  neglect- 
ing nearer  claims.  Let  us  reflect  that  hundreds  of  workers  are 
wanted  ;  that  if  they  are  to  preserve  their  vigor  they  must  not 
be  overworked  ;  and  that  each  of  us  who  might  help,  and  holds 
back,  not  only  leaves  work  undone,  but  injures  to  a  certain 
extent  the  work  of  others.  Let  each  of  us  not  attempt  too 
much,  but  take  some  one  little  bit  of  work,  and,  doing  it 
simply,  thoroughly,  and  lovingly,  wait  patiently  for  the  gradual 
spread  of  good,  and  leave  professional  workers  to  deal  for  the 
present  with  the  great  mass  of  evil  around. 


Home-Making  as  a  Social  Art.  37 

We   make   our  houses   and  they  turn  upon  us  the 
image   of   our   own   taste   and    permanently   fix   it   in  4-sthetic 

element  in 

our  very  nature.  Our  works  and  our  surroundings  the  house, 
corrupt  or  refine  our  souls.  The  dwelling,  the  walls, 
the  windows,  the  roof,  the  furniture,  the  pictures,  the 
ornaments,  the  dress,  the  fence  or  hedge — all  act  con- 
stantly upon  the  imagination  and  determine  its  contents. 
If  a  family  realizes  this  truth  it  will  seek  to  beautify  the 
objects  which  are  silently  and  unceasingly  writing  their 
nature  upon  the  man  within  the  breast.  When  the 
families  of  a  community  give  no  heed  to  this  truth  there 
is  missionary  ground. 

Let  us  imagine  a  progressive  woman  in  a  village 
or  town  where  the  houses  are  bare,  untidy,  and  ugly. 
What  can  she  do  to  communicate  her  higher  ideals  ? 
First  of  all  she  can  create  about  her,  with  the  wisest 
economy  of  available  resources,  a  home  which  shall 
serve  as  a  model.  Then  she  can  invite  some  of  her  discussion*" 
neighbors  to  sit  with  her  occasionally  while  all  discuss 
the  art  of  making  beautiful  homes.  One  such  woman 
saw  in  the  homes  of  her  acquaintance  who  had  abundant 
means  but  defective  taste  that  many  incongruous  and 
unsuitable  objects  were  tolerated.  Gaudy  chromos  dis- 
figured the  walls  of  rooms  which  were  in  other  respects 
well  furnished.  A  cotton  table  cover  came  close  to  silk 
plush.  Unbearable  flames  of  tissue  paper  flowers  were 
set  in  a  fine  vase.  She  was  determined  to  remove  them 
without  direct  and  offensive  criticism.  Thus  a  circle 
was  formed  where  each  lady  contributed  a  beautiful  Ait^ociety%.'c 
piece  of  work  and  all  studied  and  discussed  papers  and 
technical  journals  which  taught  the  art  of  decorating 
homes.  An  artistic  tea  closed  the  meetings.  Many 
homes  were  improved  in  appearance. 

Every  county  fair  might  furnish  a  school  of  artistic 


38  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

arrangement  of  the  household,  from  kitchen  to  parlor. 

County  fain,.  Furniture  dealers  from  cities  would  be  willing  to  send 
artists  to  present  a  model  of  desirable  interiors.  Archi- 
tects would  supply  plans  and  views  of  charming  homes. 
But  the  managers  must  be  very  careful  in  selecting 
the  tradesmen  who  are  to  make  the  exhibit  and  the 
judges  who  are  to  assign  the  awards.  At  this  point  it 
would  be  wise  to  secure  the  advice  of  teachers  of  art  in 
responsible  schools. 

The  domestic  miseries  which  reach  their  climax  in 

The  intellectual  wrangling  and  divorce  are  often  due  to  the  narrow, 
meager,  starved,  sterile  mental  life  of  the  family.  The 
house  is  a  mere  place  to  sleep  and  eat.  The  attractions 
of  literature,  history,  and  science  are  not  an  organic  part 
of  the  bond.  Our  subsequent  studies  will  constitute 
helpful  suggestions,  and  here  we  may  point  out  the 
occasion  for  some  method  of  turning  the  rich  cur- 
rents of  the  higher  life  in  the  direction  of  family 
interests.  Thousands  of  women  spend  much  time 
in  the  kitchen.  Occasionally  they  can  sit  down  to  wait 
or  rest.  Why  should  there  not  be  at  hand  a  little  shelf 
with  a  few  good  books,  so  that  the  domestic  or  the  busy 
mother  might  have  just  a  minute  with  a  poet  or  essayist, 
and  so  fill  the  drudgery  of  the  day  with  the  breath 
of  a  noble  world  ? 

There  are  some  things  which  only  women  ought 
to  say.  Therefore  on  one  aspect  of  home  life  we  may 
introduce  a  lady  who  will  tell  us  about  ' '  The  Unsocial 
Club  of  Women."1 

Did  you  ever  hear  of  the  Society  of  Unsocial  Women  ?  In  this 
club  a  group  of  women  who  have  tasted  social  life  until  it 
has  palled  upon  them  have  agreed  to  be  glad  they  have  a  home 
to  stay  in,  and  to  stay  there  and  be  contented.  The  members 

i  By  Louise  Marltschefl'el,  in  The  Ladies'  Home  Journal. 


Home-Making  as  a  Social  Art.  39 

of  the  club  believe  that  people  can  be  friends  and  yet  not 
be  perpetually  together.  They  believe  that  man,  the  bread- 
winner and  wage-earner  of  the  house  (if  he  is),  has  rights,  and 
of  these  is  the  right  to  be  comfortable,  to  have  some  things  as 
he  wants  them,  some  things  cooked  to  his  taste,  a  comfortable 
lounge  or  chair  in  a  favorite  corner,  his  bed  by  the  east 
window,  if  he  likes  it  thus,  his  coffee  hot  on  winter  morn- 
ings, the  house  quiet  when  he  is  weary  and  worried  and  sleeps 
lightly.  This  is  one  of  the  cardinal  beliefs  of  the  Club  of  Un- 
social Women.  The  members  do  not  often  go  visiting,  and 
actually  enjoy  their  homes.  Friend  knows  that  friend  is  true, 
so  she  is  not  fussy  about  such  trifles  as  visits ;  but  sickness 
or  sorrow  brings  her  promptly. 

The  members  of  the  Unsocial  Club  used  to  have  endless  and 
unwieldy  calling  lists.  All  of  this  living  for  the  outside  they  burned, 
now  eschew  as  unworthy  their  time  and  strength.  There  was 
once  a  fashionable  woman  who  said  she  only  kept  up  a  lengthy 
calling  list  so  that  she  would  be  assured  of  a  large  funeral. 
The  women  of  the  Unsocial  Club  don't  care  whether  they  have 
large  funerals  or  not ;  in  fact,  they  are  so  entirely  well  informed 
and  an  fait  that  they  know  large  funerals  to  be  considered  the 
prerogative  of  genius  or  of  the  parvenu.  Not  that  all  of  their 
time  is  spent  in  the  home,  for  they  know  they  must  get  into  the 
world  a  little,  lest  they  lose  all  sympathy  with  other  than  their 
own  immediate  interests. 

But  going  is  not  the  emphasis.  They  read,  keep  themselves 
apace  with  the  movements  of  the  world,  are  agreeable  com- 
panions to  their  husbands,  by  whom  they  are  valued  as  treas- 
ures most  rare,  and  sometimes  travel,  visit  art  galleries  and 
libraries  when  opportunity  offers,  read  to  the  sick,  invent 
amusement  for  the  children,  and  enjoy  other  pleasures  accord- 
ing to  their  individual  tastes. 

The  members  of  the  Unsocial  Club  believe  that  heartsease 
only  comes  when  social  ambitions  have  ceased,  and  they  know  Heartsease, 
from  experience  and  observation  that  the  woman  who  has 
social  ambitions  finds  never  peace  on  earth,  by  night  or  day  ; 
that  she  stoops  to  petty,  unwomanly  acts  to  achieve  that  which 
she  loathes  when  once  attained.  And  so  they  voted  all  this 
as  unworthy.  It  is  not  necessary  to  add  that  the  members 
of  the  Unsocial  Club  forego  the  alleged  pleasure  of  gossip. 

Charming  club.   You  would  know  the  members  were  serene, 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


to  see  their  faces.  They  know  the  right  relations  of  things,  and 
every  one  of  them  believes  that  the  art  of  homekeeping  is  pro- 
fession enough,  unless  necessity  casts  woman  out  upon  her  own 
industrial  resources,  in  w'lich  case  they  believe  she  must  go 
bravely  forth. 

The  need  for  such  an  unsocial  club  is  set  forth  by 
Mrs.  Grubb,  another  woman,  Mrs.  Wiggin,  in  her  picture  of  Mrs. 
Grubb.  This  lady,  Mrs.  Grubb,  had  a  chart  on  her  wall 
to  remind  herself  of  her  engagements  with  a  long  list  of 
societies,  in  which  the  society  of  three  children  left  in  her 
charge  was  not  included.  Her  expansive  but  somewhat 
shallow  mind  spread  over  the  subjects  of  temperance, 
single  tax,  cremation,  abolition  of  war,  vegetarianism, 
hypnotism,  dress  reform,  social  purity,  theosophy,  relig- 
ious liberty,  and  emancipation  of  women. 

Her  residence  appeared  to  be  a  perfect  hot-bed  of  world- 
saving  ideas,  and  was  surrounded  by  such  a  halo  of  spots  that 
it  would  have  struck  the  unregenerate  observer  as  an  undesir- 
able place  in  which  to  live,  unless  he  wished  to  be  broken  daily 
on  the  rack  of  social  progress.  Her  family  circle  was  not  a 
circle  at  all,  it  was  a  polygon.  It  was  four  ones,  not  one  four. 
The  fertility  of  her  mind  was  such  that  it  put  forth  new  expla- 
nations of  the  universe  every  day,  like  a  strawberry  plant  that 
devotes  itself  so  exclusively  to  runners  that  it  has  little  vigor  left 
for  producing  fruits.  She  had  soft  brown  eyes,  eyes  that  never 
saw  practical  duties  straight  in  front  of  them — liquid,  star- 
gazing, vison-seeing  eyes,  that  could  never  be  focused  on  any 
near  object,  such  as  a  twin  or  a  cooking-stove.  Individuals 
never  interested  her ;  she  cared  for  nothing  but  humanity.  Her 
body  might  occasionally  be  in  her  home,  but  her  soul  was 
always  in  a  hired  hall. 

There  was,  of  course,  no  unanimity  of  belief  running  through 
ciueW'thOUta  a"  tnese  dubs,  classes,  circles,  societies,  orders,  leagues,  chap- 
ters, and  unions  ;  but  there  was  one  bond  of  aversion,  and  that 
was  domestic  service  of  any  kind.  That  no  woman  could  de- 
velop or  soar  properly,  and  cook,  scrub,  sweep,  dust,  wash 
dishes,  mend,  or  take  care  of  babies  at  the  same  time — to 
defend  this  proposition  they  would  cheerfully  have  gone  to  the 


Home- Making  as  a  Social  Art.  41 

stake.  They  were  willing  to  concede  all  these  sordid  tasks  as 
an  honorable  department  of  woman's  work,  but  each  wanted 
them  to  be  done  by  some  other  woman.  Neither  had  she  any 
sane  and  healthy  interest  in  good  works  of  any  kind ;  she 
simply  had  a  sort  of  philanthropic  hysteria,  and  her  most  suc- 
cessful speeches  were  so  many  spasms. 

Granting  that  this  is  caricature,  we  have  excellent 
feminine  authority  for  fearing  that  it  is  caricature  which  Broken  lives. 
comes  dangerously  near  an  occasional  portrait.  The 
truth  is  that  both  men  and  women  of  a  certain  tempera- 
ment are  overborne  by  craving  for  notoriety  and  pub- 
licity, and  spend  their  distracted  lives  in  fragmentary 
talk  and  work  which  have  no  mastery  of  any  subject  as 
a  basis.  This  charlatanism  can  be  corrected  only  by  cre- 
ating a  public  sentiment  absolutely  intolerant  of  sham 
reformers  who  begin  to  make  speeches  before  they  have 
studied  the  matter  in  hand.  Reformers  must  be  taught 
that  no  individual  is  responsible  for  every  good  cause 
and  that  there  must  be  a  division  of  labor  in  philan- 
thropy as  in  scientific  research  and  in  business  or  indus- 
try. If  all  could  learn  that  certain  persons  are  fitted  by 
natural  and  acquired  gifts  for  leadership  in  definite  and 
restricted  lines,  and  that  the  duty  of  others  is  apprecia- 
tion and  assistance,  we  should  have  much  less  waste  of 
effort  and  more  steady  and  assured  progress. 

The  only  "leisure  class"  in  America  are  well-to-do 
women.  Men  are  usually  too  busy  to  deal  with  social 
service  at  first  hand.  They  pay  in  their  checks  and  buy 
out  of  responsibility.  They  ought  to  have  some  small 
credit,  however,  for  what  their  wives  and  daughters 
accomplish.  It  is  a  sign  and  proof  of  a  savage  plane  of 
non-culture  when  the  men  loaf  and  smoke  while  the 
women  build  the  huts  and  hoe  the  maize.  It  is  an 
evidence  of  civilization  when  men  sizzle  in  summer 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America, 


Religion  in 
the  Home. 


The  Mother 
Union. 


offices  while  their  wives  and  daughters  are  off  at  the 
seashore  resting  and  recuperating  after  charity  balls  and 
reform  committees,  world  without  end. 

Why  not  have  a  sanctuary  all  the  year  round  and 
dwell  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  forever?  The  public 
temple  is  indispensable,  but  first  the  home.  Schools 
supported  by  public  money  cannot  teach  religion.  That 
is  pretty  well  settled  for  vis  by  our  historical  condition. 
This  leaves  the  field  and  the  responsibility  for  domestic 
religion.  It  is  upon  this  point  that  religious  people 
ought  to  concentrate  associated  effort  during  the  next 
generation.  The  Sunday-school  system  is  fairly  rooted 
and  has  already  produced  magnificent  results.  But  that 
great  institution  has  definite  limits.  There  are  some 
signs  that  parents  have  come  to  depend  on  Sunday- 
school  teachers  to  perform  a  duty  which  can  never  be 
delegated.  This  is  a  sore  evil.  When  the  holy  flame 
expires  at  the  altar  of  home  it  is  likely  to  be  dim  every- 
where. The  old  family  worship,  which  Burns  has  so 
beautifully  praised,  must  be  revived. 

As  a  hint  of  what  may  be  done  let  us  cite  the  English 
society  called  "The  Mothers'  Union."1  It  was  formed 
in  1876  in  the  Winchester  diocese.  Its  objects  are  to 
uphold  the  sanctity  of  marriage ;  to  awaken  in  mothers 
a  sense  of  their  great  responsibility  as  mothers  in  the 
training  of  their  boys  and  girls  ;  to  organize  in  every 
place  a  band  of  mothers  who  will  unite  in  prayer,  and 
seek  by  their  own  example  to  lead  their  families  in  purity 
and  holiness  of  life.  Mothers  of  all  classes  and  ranks 
have  joined  this  union.  A  card  is  given  each  mother, 
on  which  is  a  prayer  for  her  daily  use.  Rules  are 
printed  on  the  card  and  definite  ideas  of  the  purpose  are 
thus  kept  before  their  minds.  They  agree  to  bring  up 

i  "Woman's  Mission,"  page 68. 


Home- Making  as  a  Social  Art.  43 

their  children  in  habits  of  obedience,  truth,  purity,  and 
self-control ;  to  watch  over  their  conversation,  compan- 
ionships, and  amusements  ;  to  be  careful  as  to  the  liter- 
ature placed  in  their  hands,  the  books  and  newspapers  The  ideal 

of  mothers. 

they  read  ;  and  to  inculcate  temperance.  The  union  has 
two  organs  which  have  a  wide  circulation.  The  society 
is  worked  by  a  diocesan  organizing  committee,  and  they 
have  a  central  fund  for  the  circulation  of  information  and 
the  printing  of  annual  reports.  Here  is  a  hint  for 
mothers.  But  have  the  fathers  no  duty? 


CHAPTER  III. 

FRIENDLY  CIRCLES  OF  WOMEN  WAGE-EARNERS. 

THE  question  of  the  relation  of  the  family  to  external 
associations  has  many  sides.  It  is  obvious  that  the  craze 
New  problems,  for  organizing  something  has  frequently  driven  good 
people  to  excesses.  And  yet  there  is  a  proper  place  for 
associated  effort.  In  earlier  days  our  grandmothers  pre- 
pared the  food,  clothing,  soap,  and  candles  in  the  house. 
But  steam-power  and  machinery  have  drawn  into  the 
factory  many  of  those  industries  in  which  women  were 
formerly  engaged.  Consider  some  of  the  results  of  this 
change.  Girls  and  women  have  simply  followed  their 
natural  employments  to  the  places  where  they  could  use 
effective  machines  which  are  too  costly  for  private  houses 
and  too  heavy  for  hand  or  foot-power.  They  seek 
employment  in  huge  spinning-mills,  seed  warehouses, 
tobacco  factories,  tailor  shops,  canning  factories,  cheese 
factories,  print  works,  bicycle  establishments,  millinery 
houses. 

The  goods  thus  made  must  be  sold,  transported,  dis- 
tributed. This  cannot  be  done  at  home,  and  so  we  have 
a  growing  army  of  girls  and  women  in  offices,  stores, 
and  mills,  employed  in  almost  all  kinds  of  trades  and 
professions.  They  are  separated  from  their  families, 
work  under  uncongenial  conditions,  and  have  new  dan- 
gers to  confront.  On  the  whole,  they  have,  as  Mr.  C.  D. 
Wright's  inquiry  showed,  proved  themselves  superior  to 
the  demoralizing  temptations  of  their  surroundings.  The 
fact  that  crime  increases  among  women  as  they  engage 

44 


Industrial 
situation  of 
women. 


Friendly  Circles  of  Women  Wage-Earners.       45 

in  industry  was  to  be  expected.  But  that  tendency  will 
not  dominate  the  movement  to  give  women  a  larger 
opportunity.  Perhaps  most  of  these  women  and  girls 
live  at  their  own  homes  or  in  private  families.  But  many 
of  them  have  no  home  at  any  time  and  all  feel  the  absence 
of  family  surroundings  during  the  hours  of  public  toil.  It 
would  be  the  height  of  folly  and  injustice  to  throw  the 
least  obstacle  in  the  way  of  women  who  wish  to  earn  an 
honorable  and  independent  living.  Rather  should  we 
assist  them  to  make  the  best  of  their  difficult  position. 
At  the  best  the  peril  and  the  suffering  are  very  great.  It 
was  to  meet  some  of  the  difficulties  of  this  situation  that 
clubs  for  wage-earning  women  were  formed,  sometimes 
by  the  working  women  themselves,  sometimes  by  their 
friends  who  had  good-will,  wealth,  power,  and  leisure. 

It  is  evident  that  variety  of  method  is  demanded  by 
the  variety  of  conditions.  In  some  situations  the  girls 
and  working  women  are  too  much  isolated  from  each  The  method 
other,  or  too  little  accustomed  to  initiative,  to  under-  °  pat 
take  organization  without  help  from  others.  In  city 
life  there  are  many  thousands  who  have  no  certain 
dwelling-place,  form  few  permanent  ties,  and  require 
temporary  homes  until  they  can  safely  make  other 
adjustments  for  themselves.  Very  young  girls  have  no 
experience  with  organization  and  do  not  know  how  to 
cooperate.  Under  such  conditions  the  service  of  women 
of  leisure  is  indispensable,  although  it  ought  to  aim  at 
making  the  girls  self-supporting  and  self-governing  as 
far  as  possible  and  as  quickly  as  possible. 

The  Young  Woman's  Christian  Association  is  an  or- 
ganization whose  branches  are  spreading  over  Christen-  TheY.w.  c.  A. 
dom.     The  local  society  is  often  founded  and  supported 
by  women  of  means  who  see  the  trials  and  perils  of  their 
homeless  sisters  and  desire  to  surround  them  with  relig- 


46 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


A  homeless 
girl. 


Boarding- 
houses. 


Noon  rest. 


ious  influences  and  aids  of  the  higher  life.  Young 
women  in  factories,  offices,  and  stores,  weary  of  the  din 
and  dirt  and  toil  of  the  daily  battle  for  bread,  need  a  safe 
lodging-place  at  night  and  on  Sunday.  Or  even  if  they 
dwell  with  parents,  a  cozy  clean  room,  where  lunch 
may  be  spread  and  warm  drinks  provided  at  noon  near 
the  place  of  work,  is  welcome  and  good.  Health  may 
be  prolonged  and  energy  restored  by  a  quiet  hour. 
Recreations  and  entertainments  in  the  common  resi- 
dence or  in  a  special  hall  add  brightness  and  attraction 
to  life  and  prevent  that  deadly  emptiness  and  vague 
craving  for  excitement  which  only  too  often  lure  to 
ruin.  Classes  are  formed  for  teaching  languages,  music, 
and  the  arts,  by  which  earning  power  may  be  increased 
and  the  spiritual  life  enriched.  All  these  outward 
appliances  furnish  a  medium  through  which  the  per- 
vasive influence  of  kind  matrons  may  be  felt. 

The  boarding-house  of  a  city  is  not  seldom  a  dreary 
place,  furnishing  room  and  meals  as  a  mere  business 
transaction  without  any  of  those  elements  of  companion- 
ship which  make  up  our  idea  of  home.  Many  young 
women  are  too  much  scattered  over  the  city  to  form  any 
permanent  union  for  cooperation,  and  strangers  coming 
to  a  city  ignorant  of  the  perils  which  beset  the  unwary 
and  innocent,  are  in  danger  of  making  a  fatal  choice  of 
lodgings.  In  railroad  stations  in  American  cities  a 
woman  may  find  notices  directing  her  to  some  such 
home,  Catholic,  Protestant,  or  other.  The  Young 
Woman's  Christian  Association,  with  its  permanent 
board  of  lady  managers,  offers  advantages  which  are  not 
otherwise  furnished  and  it  meets  a  real  social  need.. 

Groups  of  King's  Daughters  or  other  circles  of  Chris- 
tian girls  have  found  a  beautiful  opportunity  in  pro- 
viding rooms  for  noon  rest  in  the  center  of  a  busy  town 


Friendly  Circles  of  Women  Wage-Earners.       47 

where  thousands  of  young  women  are  employed.  It 
does  not  require  much  capital  or  machinery.  A  room  Fellowsh'P- 
is  rented  in  a  convenient  locality.  This  place  is  pro- 
vided with  lavatory,  tables,  furniture  for  rest,  and  is 
made  dainty  and  beautiful  with  decorations  and  pictures. 
Some  of  the  young  ladies  in  turn  are  present  to  receive 
their  friends,  converse,  read,  sing,  play,  and  in  various 
ways  make  the  hour  cheerful.  Acquaintance  with  the 
girls  furnishes  a  medium  of  helping  them  in  a  hundred 
ways.  As  soon  as  possible  the  girls  should  form  a  club 
and  make  it  as  nearly  self-supporting  and  self-governing 
as  can  be.  This  is  one  way  by  which  the  unhappy 
divisions  of  society  may  be  crossed  by  human  kindness. 

"Poor  little  '  Marm  Lisa,'  as  the  neighbors  called 
her.  She  had  all  the  sorrows  and  cares  of  maternity 
with  none  of  its  compensating  joys "  (Mrs.  Wiggin).  The  Little 
' '  Marm  Lisa  "  is  a  type  of  thousands  in  these  days  when  Association, 
the  mother  must  go  abroad  to  earn  a  living  and  the  old- 
est daughter,  herself  needing  a  mother's  care,  must  bend 
her  young  frame  and  untaught  mind  to  the  severest  and 
most  exacting  tasks  of  child-care  and  culture.  Good 
women  have  seen  this  social  call  and  have  endeavored  in 
various  ways  to  divide  the  burden  of  the  little  mothers. 
The  establishment  of  a  creche,  or  day  nursery,  is  one 
method,  and  this  involves  the  employment  of  a  hired 
nurse  for  the  task.  In  other  places  young  women  who 
had  no  money  to  give  but  could  offer  a  certain  amount 
of  time  and  work  have  devised  ways  of  gathering  the 
little  mothers  into  a  room,  helping  them  with  the  in- 
fants, and  have  taken  advantage  of  the  meeting  to  im- 
part such  useful  knowledge  and  training  as  the  poor 
girls  require. 

An  English  institution  of  wide  range  of  usefulness, 
called  the  Girls'    Friendly  Society,   has  found  its  way 


48 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


The  Girls' 

Friendly 

Society. 


Protective 
agencies. 


into  the  United  States.  It  is  a  guild  for  mutual  aid 
rather  than  for  charity,  although  it  is  managed  by 
women  of  leisure.  The  main  features  are  thus  stated 
by  Miss  Edith  Sellers  in  "  Woman's  Mission  "  : 

The  society  was  founded  in  1875  by  Mrs.  Townsend,  for  the 
purpose  of  uniting  in  one  great  fellowship  women  and  girls 
of  all  ranks.  The  associates  are  as  a  rule  ladies  of  culture  ;  the 
members  are  of  all  sorts,  from  trained  teachers  to  workhouse 
helps  ;  for  the  only  condition  the  society  imposes  on  those  who 
join  it  is  that  they  shall  be  of  good  character  and  be  striving  to 
do  their  work  in  life  honestly.  Each  associate  undertakes 
to  help  a  certain  number  of  members  by  all  the  means  in  her 
power,  but  especially  by  treating  them  as  her  personal  friends. 
The  members  in  their  turn  are  bound  to  act  as  friends  to  each 
other.  .  .  .  England  and  Wales,  Scotland,  Ireland,  the 
colonies,  America,  and  North  Central  Europe,  have  each  a 
separate,  autonomous  society,  the  only  connecting  link  amongst 
them  being  the  Central  Council  in  London.  .  .  .  The  Eng- 
lish society  stands  in  close  relations  to  the  Established  Church, 
of  which  it  is  a  powerful  auxiliary.  .  .  .  The  secretaries  of 
all  the  branches  in  a  diocese  form  a  diocesan  council ;  the 
presidents  of  the  diocesan  councils,  together  with  the  colonial 
and  foreign  presidents,  the  heads  of  departments,  and  ten 
elected  members,  form  the  Central  Council. 

The  work  is  divided  into  ten  departments.  Each 
of  these  departments  has  a  special  task,  as  :  caring 
for  the  interests  of  educated  persons,  factory  girls, 
domestic  servants,  workhouse  girls,  free  registries, 
lodges,  recreation  rooms,  emigration,  schools  and 
homes  for  industrial  training,  cheap  and  wholesome 
literature,  and  charge  of  members  when  they  are  ill. 

The  people  of  our  country  intend  to  make  public  law 
minister  to  the  most  humble  citizen.  But  this  intention 
is  often  thwarted  through  the  cruelty  and  coarseness 
of  base  men.  There  is  a  field,  especially  in  cities, 
for  a  society  whose  mission  it  is  to  secure  legal  protec- 
tion for  friendless  women  and  helpless  children.  These 


Friendly  Circles  of  Women  Wage-Earners.       49 

societies  are  supported  by  voluntary  contributions  of  in- 
terested friends.  They  employ  a  firm  of  lawyers  for 
presenting  cases  in  court  and  giving  legal  advice. 
' '  There  is  a  constantly  increasing  tendency  toward  the 
quiet  and  thoughtful  adjustment  of  difficulties.  The  ad- 
visory features  are  considered  the  most  helpful  and 
hopeful  indications."  Through  this  agency  money 
withheld  by  dishonest  employers  is  secured ;  the  com- 
plaints of  wives  against  cruel  husbands  are  investigated  ; 
men  guilty  of  criminal  assault  are  prosecuted  ;  chattel 
mortgage  usurers  are  brought  to  reasonable  terms  ; 
seducers  are  compelled  to  assist  their  victims ;  sewing- 
machine  frauds  are  brought  to  light  and  punishment ; 
and  in  general  the  forsaken  and  desperate  are  made 
to  feel  that  the  powers  that  be  are  on  their  side  in 
the  contest  with  misery  and  neglect.  One  poor  mother, 
left  by  a  worthless  husband  to  care  for  five  small  chil- 
dren, was  helped  until  she  could  support  herself  in 
a  comfortable  house;  and  she  gratefully  said:  "It's 
you  folks  did  it,  putting  heart  in  me  so  often  when 
I  could  not  go  on  alone." 

The  founders  of  another  useful  association  have  thus  The  consum 
stated  their  object :  ers>  Leas"e- 

Recogni/ing  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  employers  are  virtu- 
ally helpless  to  improve  conditions  as  to  hours  and  wages,  un- 
less sustained  by  public  opinion,  by  law,  and  by  the  action 
of  consumers,  the  Consumers'  League  declares  its  object  to  be 
to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  women  and  children  em- 
ployed in  the  retail  mercantile  houses  of  New  York  City, 
by  patronizing,  so  far  as  practicable,  only  such  houses  as 
approach  in  their  conditions  to  the  standard  of  a  fair  house, 
as  adopted  by  the  league,  and  by  other  methods. 

By  a  "  fair  house"  they  mean  one  in  which  equal  pay 
is  given  for  work  of  equal  value,  irrespective  of  sex.  In 
the  departments  where  women  only  are  employed  the 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


A  "fair  house.'1 


A  ju*t  boycott. 


minimum  wages  should  be  six  dollars  per  week  for 
experienced  adult  workers,  and  should  fall  in  few  in- 
stances below  eight  dollars.  Wages  are  paid  by  the 
week.  Fines,  if  imposed,  are  paid  into  a  fund  for 
the  benefit  of  the  employees.  The  minimum  wages  for 
cash  girls  are  two  dollars  per  week.  The  hours  are 
from  8  a.  m.  to  6  p.  m. ,  with  three  quarters  of  an  hour 
for  lunch,  and  a  general  half-holiday  is  given  on  one  day 
of  each  week  during  at  least  two  summer  months.  A 
vacation  of  not  less  than  one  week  is  given  with  pay 
during  the  summer  season.  All  over-time  is  compen- 
sated. The  rooms  are  so  arranged  that  work,  lunch, 
and  retiring  rooms  are  apart  from  each  other  and 
conform  to  the  sanitary  ordinances.  Seats  are  provided 
and  their  use  is  permitted.  Humane  and  considerate 
behavior  toward*  employees  is  the  rule.  Fidelity  and 
length  of  service  meet  with  due  consideration.  No 
children  under  fourteen  years  of  age  are  employed. 

This  league  investigates  retail  establishments,  learns 
whether  they  conform  to  the  minimum  standards  just 
outlined,  and  then  publishes  a  "White  List"  which 
recommends  the  more  humane  houses  to  public  patron- 
age. It  is  practically  a  form  of  boycott  without  objection- 
able features.  The  tendency  is  to  bring  all  salesrooms 
under  the  rules  which  secure  humane  treatment  of  em- 
ployees. There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  these  women 
and  girls  need  such  protection.  They  are  usually  timid 
and  unaccustomed  to  associated  action  ;  they  are  young 
and  therefore  without  the  wisdom  and  experience  which 
would  enable  them  to  act  on  their  own  behalf ;  if  they 
sink  down  under  their  burden  their  places  are  easily  filled 
from  a  throng  of  eager  and  hungry  applicants  ;  competi- 
tion to  them  means  death  or  degradation  unless  they 
have  the  help  of  others.  Dr.  W.  S.  Rainsford  tells  of  a 


Friendly  Circles  of  Women  Wage- Earners.       51 

girl  who  for  ten  days  before  Christmas  worked  until 
10:30  every  night  of  the  week  and  from  9  a.  m.  to 
5  p.  m.  on  Sunday.  No  food  was  provided  while  she 
endured  this  strain.  Her  wages  were  four  dollars  per 
week.  When  she  got  home  on  Christmas  Eve  she 
fainted  from  exhaustion. 

Shoppers  are  advised    to    shop    during    reasonable 
hours,  in  the  morning  if  possible  ;  and  to  avoid  Satur-  Advice  to 

shoppers. 

day  afternoon,  so  as  to  build  up  a  custom  favorable  to  a 
half-holiday.  Holiday  purchases  should  be  made  early, 
so  as  to  diminish  the  strain  on  employees.  Customers 
can  help  the  girls  by  inquiring  if  seats  are  provided  and 
used,  and  by  treating  them  with  patience  and  considera- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  the  saleswomen  must  help 
themselves.  They  cannot  be  simply  carried  by  out- 
siders. Reforms  are  always  based  on  improved  charac- 
ter and  are  fruitless  without  that  inner  quality.  ' '  Our 
efforts  to  secure  for  all  the  women  and  girls  who  work 
in  retail  shops  in  this  city  the  same  conditions  which 
exist  in  the  shops  on  the  '  White  List '  of  the  Consum- 
ers' League  are  hampered  by  the  fact  that  the  service  is 
often  better  in  the  shops  which  are  not  on  the  '  White 
List.'  The  saleswomen  in  the  shop  which  of  all  others 
in  New  York  gives  its  employees  the  greatest  number  of 
privileges  have  been  so  notoriously  rude  in  their  treat- 
ment of  the  public  that  ladies  have  given  that  reason  for 
not  patronizing  it,  and  thus  a  very  strong  moral  as  well 
as  business  argument  can  be  made  in  favor  of  fines  and 
severity  of  discipline." 

The  name  of  Miss  Grace  H.  Dodge  is  identified  with 
a  movement  which  deserves  particular  study,  as  it  seems  «(££•«'£*  Girl* 
to  have  a  genuine  root  in  the  life  of   European   and 
American  peoples.      Enlargement  of  economic  oppor- 
tunity has  brought  with  it  a  new  sense  of  independence 


52 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Classes  of 

working 

women. 


Method  of 
organization. 


and  personal  responsibility.  Fewer  women  expect  or 
desire  to  be  in  absolute  subjection  as  a  condition  of  sup- 
port. Women  who  have  caught  the  spirit  of  the  new 
era  despise  charity  as  a  source  of  living,  and  they  are 
sensitively  suspicious  of  anything  which  has  a  taint  of 
pauperism.  They  are  willing  to  work  long  hours  at 
hard  work,  and  with  miserably  inadequate  wages,  in 
order  to  maintain  their  self-respect  and  keep  ' '  the 
glorious  privilege  of  being  independent."  They  are 
drawn  together  by  the  fact  of  a  common  calling,  and 
this  not  only  gives  them  a  feeling  of  sympathy  for  each 
other  but  it  creates  class  distinctions  which  are  as  keenly 
felt  as  those  which  fill  the  circles  of  the  upper  ' '  four 
hundred"  with  envy,  spite,  and  all  uncharitableness. 
The  seamy  side  of  solidarity  is  exclusiveness.  As  in- 
dustrial association  has  brought  them  together,  without 
regard  to  denominational  lines,  any  method  of  combin- 
ing them  must  scrupulously  and  delicately  keep  to  what 
is  common  and  avoid  the  discussion  of  controversial 
matters.  For  these  reasons  there  is  a  field  for  organi- 
zation quite  different  from  that  of  the  Young  Woman's 
Christian  Association  and  the  Woman's  Christian  Tem- 
perance Union.  This  field  is  occupied  by  the  Working 
Girls'  Societies,  whose  methods  may  be  illustrated  by 
the  following  suggestions. 

Any  one  who  is  interested,  whether  wage-worker  or 
woman  of  leisure,  may  make  the  beginning.  It  is  pru- 
dent to  start  with  young  women,  since  the  work  is 
chiefly  for  girls.  The  earlier  meetings  for  consultation 
should  be  held  in  one  of  the  homes  of  the  girls  or  in 
some  secular  place  which  will  not  give  offense  to  de- 
nominational prejudices.  One  of  the  first  steps  will  be 
to  raise  about  $150  for  furnishing  the  club  rooms  and 
paying  rent  for  the  first  month.  This  money  may  be 


Friendly  Circles  of  Women  Wage-Earners.       53 

borrowed  and  gradually  repaid  from  the  dues.  About 
two  hundred  girls  of  various  occupations  should  be  in- 
vited to  the  first  meeting  for  organization,  and  if  a 
sufficient  number  respond  the  constitution  and  rules  Constitution, 
may  be  discussed  and  adopted.  Forms  may  be  pro- 
cured from  the  Association  of  Working  Girls'  Societies 
in  New  York  or  from  some  particular  society,  and  these 
forms  should  be  ready  for  the  first  meeting. 

The  officers  elected  should  include  working  women 
and  women  of  leisure,  and  these  officers  may  constitute 
a  council  or  executive  committee  for  administration.  But 
all  important  matters  should  be  brought  before  the  entire 
association  for  discussion  and  decision.  The  committee 
on  rooms  is  asked  to  look  out  a  quiet  place  on  a  retired 
street  where  rents  are  not  excessively  high.  The  com- 
mittee on  furnishing  should  be  assisted  by  all  the  mem- 
bers in  making  the  rooms  beautiful.  It  is  very  desirable 
to  have  a  piano,  and  this  can  be  rented.  When  the 
rooms  are  ready  an  opening  reception  should  be  held, 
and  at  this  time  explanations  should  be  carefully  made 
to  the  newspapers  and  to  the  neighboring  clergy,  so  as 
to  prevent  all  misunderstandings.  Up  to  the  time  of 
the  reception  publicity  should  be  avoided.  Very  early 
in  its  history  the  club  will  provide  for  class  instruction. 
It  is  stated  that  in  a  large  city  the  expenses  are  about 
$40  to  $50  per  month  :  rent,  $25  ;  coal,  $j.  ;  i;as.  53  ; 
cleaning,  $4  ;  piano,  $4.  The  fees  for  expenses  are 
about  twenty  to  twenty-five  cents  per  month. 

"  Volunteer  teachers,  books  for  the  library,  even 
money,  when  unsolicited,  may,  by  vote  of  the  club,  be  independence, 
accepted  with  pleasure  unmixed  with  the  dread  of  pat- 
ronage." Public  educational  and  art  institutions,  open 
to  j»H,  may  be  used.  But  these  clubs  ought  not  to 
solicit  help  nor  in  any  way  become  dependent  on  out- 


54  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

aiders.  Self-government  and  self-support  are  insep- 
arable. The  members  seek  to  secure  higher  wages  and 
claim  a  fair  reward  for  their  industry,  and  they  wish  to 
pay  for  all  which  they  enjoy.  The  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  their  organizations  are  cooperation,  self-support, 
self-government. 

From  reports  of  the  clubs  we  discover  the  range  of 

ac*hnti«f  their  activities  and  advantages.     They  employ  a  woman 

physician,  who  is  paid  out  of  the  funds.  Teachers  are 
paid  from  special  fees  for  instruction  in  dressmaking, 
sewing,  embroidery,  fancy  work,  crocheting,  knitting, 
cooking,  millinery,  bookkeeping,  and  various  English 
studies.  A  library  with  reading-room  is  provided  and 
aesthetic  culture  is  promoted  by  pictures,  photographs, 
musical  entertainments,  and  readings.  "Practical 
talks"  have  formed  an  important  part  of  the  work 
from  the  beginning.  They  are  not  lectures,  but  just 
what  their  name  implies  ;  and,  as  the  rooms  are  not 
large,  the  greatest  freedom  of  conversation  is  enjoyed. 
Certain  common  interests  are  set  forward  by  various 
devices  of  thrift  and  cooperation.  The  club  room  be- 
comes a  station  for  the  Penny  Provident  Fund  and  is 
thus  connected  with  a  savings  bank.  A  mutual  benefit 
fund  is  sometimes  started,  which  is  a  protection  when 
work  is  slack,  when  sickness  or  other  misfortune  befalls. 
An  employment  bureau  for  the  members  mobilizes 
their  industrial  force.  During  the  summer  the  club  is 
able  to  secure  very  inexpensive  outings  in  the  country 
for  girls  on  vacation.  A  Domestic  Circle,  composed  of 

Domestic  young  married  women,  is  formed,  and  has  contributed 

to  the  preparation  of  young  mothers  for  the  important 
duties  of  motherhood  and  housekeeping.  An  inner 
band  called  the  Three  P's  Circle  (from  their  motto, 
"Purity,  Perseverance,  Pleasantness"),  develops  more 


Friendly  Circles  of  Women  Wage-Earners.        55 

earnest  womanhood  and  devises  ways  of  making  homes 
more  bright  and  pleasant.  Classes  are  formed  to  learn 
the  art  of  "first  aid  to  the  injured."  Lectures  on  health 
and  on  legal  relations  give  the  girls  a  more  accurate 
notion  of  the  conditions  of  physical  well-being  and  of 
their  social  environment. 

While  the  members  dread  to  receive  they  find  it 
truly  blessed  to  give.  There  is  but  a  single  step  from 
mutual  benefit  to  disinterested  kindness.  "We  have 
such  a  good  time,  what  can  we  do  for  others  ?  ' '  That 
is  the  note  of  a  woman's  voice.  So  we  naturally  find 
the  clubs  of  self-reliant  girls  forming  Lend  a  Hand  Benevolent 

work 

Clubs  and  visiting  committees  for  the  sick.  The 
members  arrange  to  go  to  hospitals  and  to  carry  to  sick 
children  fancy  scrap-books,  full  of  pictures,  to  make 
dull  days  tolerable.  They  supply  beef  tea,  flowers, 
fresh  eggs  to  the  sick  poor.  These  gracious,  delicate, 
personal  ministries  do  not  appear  in  the  lists  of  rich 
contributors  to  institutional  charity,  but  there  is  One 
who  sees. 

The  Working  Women's  Social  Club,  of  New  York,  is  „ 

Working 

an  illustration  of  the  cooperative  method  of  providing  a 
home  for  unmarried  women.  Any  woman  engaged  in 
household  service  may  become  a  member.  The  plan 
includes  the  establishment  of  a  home  where  women  of 
this  calling  may  find  board  and  comfortable  surround- 
ings when  unemployed  or  in  need  of  rest,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  training  school  for  the  instruction  of  women 
in  household  work.  By  the  payment  of  small  regular 
dues  provision  is  made  for  care  in  case  of  sickness  or 
lack  of  employment.  The  wages  of  women  engaged  in 
domestic  employment  are  usually  sufficient  to  provide 
moderate  fees  for  this  kind  of  sick  insurance.  It  renders 
it  unnecessary  for  them  to  go  to  a  charity  ward  of  a  hos- 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Bible  Class 

Clubs. 


The 

"Jane  Club." 


Influence  of 
clubs. 


pital  when  they  are  too  ill  to  work.  By  the  payment  of 
a  small  sum  each  month  into  a  common  treasury,  and 
by  making  a  contract  with  hospitals,  the  right  to  board, 
nursing,  and  medical  attendance  can  be  enjoyed  without 
a  thought  of  dependence  or  humiliation.  Such  an 
arrangement  can  be  made  where  a  large  Bible  class 
of  working  women  is  connected  with  a  church.  There 
is  no  better  proof  of  the  weakness  of  selfishness  and  the 
power  of  cooperation  than  the  success  of  these  plans  of 
mutual  help. 

The  "Jane  Club,"  one  of  the  fruits  of  the  Hull  House, 
Chicago,  may  serve  to  illustrate  another  method  of 
cooperative  housekeeping  for  homeless  women.  Any 
self-supporting  unmarried  woman,  or  widow  without 
dependent  children,  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and 
forty-five,  who  is  of  good  moral  character,  is  eligible  for 
membership.  Members  who  attain  the  age  of  forty-five 
and  who  have  previously  belonged  to  the  club  are  not 
affected  by  this  provision.  The  home  provided  is  very 
attractive,  and  all  the  members  share  benefits,  expenses, 
and  losses. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  such  associations  may  be  abused. 
But  the  general  and  normal  tendency  must  be  to  fit  girls 
for  domestic  life.  In  these  clubs  girls  learn  all  the  arts 
which  make  women  more  useful  in  the  household.  They 
learn  to  cut  and  fit  dresses  ;  to  prepare  food  daintily,  and 
to  set  a  table  so  that  it  will  have  a  refining  influence ; 
they  learn  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  body  and 
the  laws  of  hygiene,  the  principles  of  modesty,  purity, 
and  dignity,  and  the  way  to  that  higher  self  which  is 
awakened  by  consciousness  of  the  help  of  the  Divine 
Father.  The  practical  talks  and  the  class  instruction 
assist  the  formation  of  womanly  character  and  secure 
adaptation  to  domestic  life. 


Friendly  Circles  of  Women  Wage-Earners,       57 

Miss  Grace  H.  Dodge  is  a  competent  witness  : 

A  live  working  club  is  felt  in  many  directions,  and  homes, 
factories,  shops,  neighborhoods,  towns,  and  villages  should 
feel  the  good  of  the  organization. 

One  aim  of  the  first  society  was  that  by  association  together, 
wives,  mothers,  and  home-makers  should  be  developed,  that 
the  tone  of  womanhood  should  be  raised,  and  earnest  lives 
developed  in  girls  who,  perhaps,  without  bright,  helpful  associ- 
ation would  have  been  content  to  remain  in  narrow  circles  of 
selfishness  or  frivolity.  This  desire  has  been  realized,  and 
many  homes  have  been  created  or  made  beautiful  by  club 
members.  Dozens  of  girls  have  had  hidden  talent  cultivated, 
and  have  shown  by  brave,  true  living  and  working  what  the 
society  has  done  for  them.  This  is  a  possibility  in  every  club, 
and  the  officers  must  see  that  the  importance  of  the  home  life 
and  the  beauty  of  earnest  living  are  recognized,  and  that  the 
influence  of  bright  womanhood  is  appreciated.  , 

A  society  opens  fields  of  usefulness  for  many  young  women 
of  greater  or  less  culture,  leisure,  and  education,  and  those 
many,  who  are  busy  during  the  day  but  who  have  talent  and 
brains,  are  needed  to  help  the  girls  who  have  not  the  same 
natural  advantages. 

It  is  impossible  to  separate  that  part  of  social  service 
which  belongs  to  women  and  to  distinguish  their  specific 
share.  The  unit  of  the  nation  is  the  home  and  there 
the  mother  is  queen  by  divine  right.  This  century 
of  the  purest  literature  would  not  be  so  pure  or  so  rich  if 
the  contributions  of  women  were  omitted.  The  public 
school  system  is  in  the  hands  of  women,  and  the  same 
thing  is  largely  true  of  the  Sunday-school.  In  charities 
and  churches,  in  missions  to  the  heathen  at  home  and 
abroad,  American  women  have  a  high  place  and  com- 
manding influence.  All  professions,  trades,  and  arts  are  union  of 
open  to  them  and  occupied  by  them  with  honor, 
Therefore  in  all  our  succeeding  chapters  we  shall  be 
studying  woman's  work,  ^even  when  the  fact  is  not 
specifically  stated.  And  this  union  of  service  is  highly 


58  The  Social  Spirit  in  America.    ' 

desirable.    Julia  Ward  Howe's  name  gives  high  sanction. 

to  the  thought :  ' '  Every  enlargement  of  freedom  brings 

with  it  an  extension  of  moral  responsibility.     .    .     .    To 

Freedom  brings  see  the  best  men  move  in  sympathy  and  harmony  with 

responsibility.  *  ' 

the  best  women,  and  to  see  both  linked  together  by  zeal 

and  service  to  all  ranks  of  their  fellow  creatures,  this  is 

what  my  heart  desires,  this  is  what  American  men  and 

women  owe  to  their  country. ' '     And  Marion  Harland  : 

{    "  Woman  should  by  now  have  ceased  to  be  a  specialty. 

\    There  should  be  no  need  of  '  movements  '  in  her  behalf, 

\  and  agitations   for  her  advancement  and  development 

\  apart  from  the  general  good. ' ' 


CHAPTER  IV. 

BETTER    HOUSES   FOR   THE   PEOPLE. 

THE  external  system  which  serves  society  affects 
human  character  and  happiness  very  closely  at  many 
points.  The  places  in  which  we  dwell  and  work,  the 
paths  by  which  we  walk,  the  means  of  transport  and 
communication,  are  all  related  to  each  other  and  to 
community  welfare. 

Our  study  of  the  family  has  shown  us  the  meaning 
of  the  social  movements  to  secure  more  suitable  external 
accommodations,  especially  in  the  crowded  and  con-  Dwellings. 
gested  centers  of  population.  In  the  open  country 
a  man  may  build  almost  any  kind  of  a  house  without 
much  danger  to  his  neighbors.  But  in  large  towns 
a  private  dwelling  is  not  a  mere  private  interest.  If  the 
house  is  too  high  it  casts  upon  all  neighbors  a  depressing 
and  unwholesome  shadow.  Brightness  is  turned  into 
gloom.  If  one  builds  a  chimney  so  that  it  develops 
cracks  the  entire  block  is  in  danger  of  conflagration.  If 
the  air  is  foul  in  one  dwelling  of  a  tenement  it  may 
poison  twenty  families  who  live  under  the  same  roof. 
The  single  family  is  helpless  without  associated  action. 
Frequently  the  better  people  of  a  whole  district  lack  the 
knowledge,  courage,  or  power  to  defend  themselves 
from  filth,  disorder,  and  demoralizing  influences  of  bold 
and  shameless  characters.  They  are  sometimes  crowded 
into  quarters  for  which  they  pay  high  rentals  but  which 
do  not  furnish  decent  accommodations  for  the  develop- 
ment of  worthy  human  qualities.  Take  some  examples 


6o 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Examples  of 
"how  not 
to  do  it." 


Death-rate. 


from  reports  of  inspectors  of  a  certain  city,  and  remem- 
ber that  many  of  these  houses  are  owned  by  highly 
respectable  and  even  eminent  landlords. 

No.  — .  One-story  frame  house,  built  on  rear  of  lot,  below 
grade;  two  feet  lower  than  alley.  Poorly  ventilated.  Dark 
and  damp.  Ceiling  low.  Floor  on  ground.  Three  feet  of 
refuse,  consisting  of  dead  dogs,  cats,  and  other  matter  piled 
against  west  side  of  house.  No.  — .  Two-story  frame  house, 
occupied  by  two  families.  First  floor  store,  three  living  rooms, 
and  stable.  Thin  boards  between  kitchen  and  stable.  Two 
horses  in  stable.  Kitchen  door  opens  into  stable.  Horses  not 
*wo  feet  from  kitchen  door.  Stable  not  clean  and  foul  odor  from 
same.  House  unfit  for  human  habitation.  No.  — .  Plumbing 
and  drains  in  bad  condition.  Yard  filled  with  rubbish.  Filthy 
and  foul-smelling  vault  in  rear.  No.  — .  Building  in  last  stages 
of  decay,  floors  rotten,  walls  open  to  the  air,  ceiling  broken. 
no  water  or  sewer  connections,  corners  filled  with  decaying 
rubbish.  Character  of  the  whole  place  beggars  description. 
No.  — .  On  an  alley ;  formerly  a  stable,  or  shed  for  horses  ; 
four  feet  below  grade.  Floors  and  wall  damp  ;  no  sewer  con- 
nections. Corners  filled  with  decaying  rubbish.  In  this  eight 
people  stay.  Two  are  sick  children.  No.  — .  Small  house, 
low  ceilings,  no  ventilation,  below  grade,  vaults  uncleaned,  no 
sewer  connection,  stable  adjoining  where  apples,  bananas,  and 
vegetables  in  various  stages  of  preservation  are  kept.  In  these 
premises  ten  Greeks,  two  horses,  and  one  goat  all  live  in 
a  confused  mass  with  the  fruit  to  be  sold  in  the  streets.  No. — . 
Similar  vile  conditions.  Eight  Greeks  live  here  with  their 
fruit.  From  this  place  last  winter  a  case  of  diphtheria  was 
taken.  At  that  time  a  horse  was  stabled  in  the  same  room 
with  the  men. 

A  volume  of  such  descriptions  might  be  copied  here. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  death-rate  in  such  quarters 
is  much  higher  than  in  the  parts  of  the  city  where  order 
and  cleanliness  are  maintained. 

In  New  York  City,  in  a  population  of  255,033  per- 
sons, only  306  had  access  to  a  bathroom  in  the  houses 
in  which  they  lived.  In  the  old,  dilapidated,  filth- 


Better  Houses  for  the  People.  61 

soaked,    dark,    unventilated    buildings    the    death-rate 

among  children  under  five  years  of  age  ran  up  to  254.4 

in   a  thousand,   while   under   wholesome   conditions   it 

might  be  reduced  to  thirty  in  a  thousand.     Christendom 

still  shudders  when  it  reads  of  Herod's  "slaughter  of  innocents. 

the  innocents,"  but  that  butchery  was  insignificant  in 

proportions  when  compared  with  the  murderous  effects 

of  city  tenement  life.     The  general  death-rate  for  such  a 

crowded  quarter  is  61.97,  while  that  of  the  city  at  large 

is  only  20.03. 

Why  do  these  people  not  leave  such  miserable 
houses?  The  question  betrays  the  ignorance  of  the 
questioner  in  respect  to  the  income  of  such  people  and 
the  possibility  of  securing  better  accommodations  for 
what  they  are  able  to  pay.  Why  do  not  the  landlords 
put  the  houses  into  a  sanitary  condition?  Perhaps 
they  are  non-residents  and  leave  the  collection  of  rents 
to  hired  agents  who  think  of  commissions  and  not  of 
the  interests  of  the  occupants.  Perhaps  the  landlord 
would  not  make  a  change  which  cost  him  much  even  Neglect, 
if  he  had  gone  with  the  inspectors.  Perhaps  the  owner 
is  himself  an  ignorant  immigrant  or  native  who  is 
"saving"  a  fortune  and,  seeing  that  a  dirty  house 
brings  as  much  rent  as  a  healthy  house,  compels  his 
tenant  to  help  him  in  his  scheme  of  thrift.  Perhaps  it  is 
because  the  alderman  from  that  ward  is  so  busy  seeking 
booty  and  boodle  from  giving  away  franchises  that  he 
cannot  find  time,  even  if  he  had  the  knowledge,  to  pro- 
tect his  fellow-citizens  from  the  ravages  of  greed  and 
pestilence.  It  is  well  said  that  before  we  can  disinfect 
our  tenements  and  alleys  we  must  disinfect  our  city 
councils.  Moral  character  and  external  conditions  of 
health  are  in  reciprocal  relations,  they  act  and  react 
upon  each  other  as  causes. 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Investigation. 


Landlord 

miuionarle*. 


This  social  misery  has  been  felt  in  all  civilized  lands 
since  the  rise  of  modern  sanitary  science  made  dull  resig- 
nation to  disease  a  crime,  and  since  the  beginning  of  the 
rapid  growth  of  large  towns  under  the  pressure  of 
machine  industry.  The  problem  has  been  studied  by 
highly  competent  engineers,  statisticians,  accountants, 
municipal  administrators,  physicians,  philanthropists, 
and  business  men.  Vigorous  efforts  have  been  put  forth 
to  provide  adequate  housing  for  the  poor  of  cities  ;  but 
there  is  still  room  for  the  heroic  virtues  of  citizenship  in 
this  field.  Let  us  see  what  can  be  done. 

First  of  all,  we  must  study  local  conditions  and  place 
the  results  of  investigation  before  the  public.  Light  is 
a  very  effective  moral  disinfectant.  Information  about 
abuses  is  often  the  only  remedy  that  is  required. 
Owners  of  houses  which  are  unfit  for  human  habitation 
become  very  sensitive  to  public  criticism  when  the 
publications  are  confined  strictly  to  facts  set  forth  by 
photographs  and  measurements  and  descriptions  by  eye 
witnesses.  Landlords  may  sometimes  be  persuaded  to 
correct  the  conditions  which  increase  disease  without 
the  penalty  of  publicity.  For  such  investigation  a 
course  in  bacteriology,  chemistry,  sanitary  science,  and 
microscopy  is  an  excellent  preparation  ;  but  any  ex- 
perienced housekeeper  equipped  with  a  tape  measure, 
with  normal  standards  of  propriety,  and  with  a  healthy 
olfactory  organ,  can  soon  detect  enough  causes  of 
pestilence  to  supply  nightmares  for  a  whole  ward. 
People  who  tolerate  such  abuses  have  no  right  to  sleep 
soundly  of  nights  until  they  have  tried  to  remedy  the 
wrong. 

Octavia  Hill's  noble  name  is  connected  with  a  move- 
ment of  great  and  increasing  significance.  With  the 
help  of  John  Ruskin  she  secured  control  of  some  houses 


Better  Houses  for  the  People.  63 

whose  inhabitants  had  an  unsavory  record  for  untidiness 
and  other  unneighborly  qualities.  Without  any  pre- 
tense of  philanthropy  she  went  among  them  as  a  rent  col- 
lector. One  of  her  first  principles  was  to  require  prompt 
payment  of  rent.  This  established  natural  business  re-  phi 
lations  between  her  and  the  customers.  The  power  to 
eject  a  disobedient  tenant  was  in  the  background  of  her 
friendly  counsels  of  perfection  ;  but  she  soon  proved 
that  it  would  not  often  be  necessary  to  employ  this  legal 
coercion.  She  found  ways  of  rewarding  those  who  took 
superior  care  of  her  property,  and  hope  was  a  more  reli- 
able motive  than  fear.  The  heedless  and  awkward  were 
obliged  to  wait  for  improvements  and  conveniences 
which  their  more  skilful  and  tidy  neighbors  enjoyed 
first.  Thus  she  transformed  the  houses  and  the  people 
at  the  same  time. 

This  method  of  social  service  has  been  taken  up  in 
the  United  States.  One  philanthropic  lady  of  leisure 
and  wealth  who  was  looking  about  for  a  career  worthy 
of  her  station  and  opportunities  found  it  in  collecting 
rents  in  the  tenements  owned  by  her  husband.  After  a 
time  she  reported  that  she  had  lost  some  interest  in  phi- 
lanthropy but  had  increased  the  interest  on  her  invest- 
ment. It  is  no  reflection  on  a  mode  of  philanthropy 
that  it  turns  out  to  be  wise  economy  and  brings  five  per 
cent.  Indeed  a  great  idea  never  becomes  catching  till  it 
shows  well  in  a  trial  balance. 

One  form  of  this  rent-collecting;  plan  (tried  in  Cincin- 

An  example. 

nati  by  Mr.  C.  G.  Fairchild)  deserves  more  particular 
notice.  In  this  instance  the  philanthropist  in  disguise  of 
a  hard-hearted  collector  went  to  live  in  the  same  house 
with  the  people.  He  was  not  regarded  by  them  as  an 
outsider  but  as  a  sort  of  chief  janitor  or  caretaker  of  the 
building.  His  family,  whose  culture  was  of  the  highest 


64  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

order,  went  with  him  and  aided  materially  in  the  task  of 
renovation.     On  this  point  he  says  : 

In  this  discussion  drop  out  of  mind  the  thought  of  sacrifices. 
Amodel  rent  Life  in  the  tenements  of  our  cities  can  be  just  as  wholesome 
physically  and  with  more  of  a  tonic  morally  even  for  our  chil- 
dren than  in  the  more  sensuous  and  sheltered  suburbs.  .  .  . 
The  scope  of  our  activity  is  bounded  by  the  one  thought :  how 
can  we  in  the  long  run  promote  the  value  of  this  property. 
This  may  seem  narrow  and  mercenary,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact 
it  has  brought  us  in  helpful  contact  with  nearly  every  branch  of 
the  city  government  and  the  main  charitable  organizations 
of  the  city.  It  has  brought  us  into  exigencies  of  individual  and 
family  life  where  ...  we  were  called  to  exercise  the  most 
delicate  and  accurate  judgment  touching  the  most  complex  and 
important  questions  of  character  and  human  welfare. 

This  gentleman  took  a  house  which  had  a  bad  reputa- 
tion. Charity  visitors  dreaded  to  go  there. 

The  place  was  lonely,  the  house  forbidding,  the  halls  cold 
and  cave-like,  the  reputation  was  of  the  worst,  and  the  next 
streets  poured  in  their  disorderly  elements. 

He   took   possession    of   this   property  with  very  little 
improvement  by  the  owners. 

This  living  upon  the  premises  is  the  most  vital  thing  con- 
nected with  the  whole  work.  We  found  some  good  people, 
standards.  people  who  merit  and  receive  our  admiration  and  our  love. 
Here  is  a  woman,  the  mother  often  children  born  in  rapid  suc- 
cession, who  has  carried  and  is  still  carrying  the  burden  of  her 
drinking  and  inefficient,  not  to  say  lazy,  husband  ;  who  is 
working  all  night  at  a  restaurant,  half  the  hours  at  washing 
dishes  and  the  other  half  at  scrubbing  floors,  for  fifty  cents 
a  night  and  a  basket  of  broken  victuals.  In  times  past  chari- 
table hands  have  helped  her,  but  as  her  children  have  grown  to 
help  this  aid  has  ceased  and  she  pays  her  rent  promptly  and 
preserves  a  wholesome  family  life.  ...  In  a  little  home  of 
two  rooms  once  or  twice  a  week  we  would  find  the  kitchen 
floor  spotlessly  clean,  though  it  was  the  living  room  and  sleep- 
ing room  of  four  small  children.  One  day  in  praising  the 


Better  Houses  for  the  People,  65 

appearance  of  the  portion  of  the  outside  hall  which  it  fell 
to  this  family  to  care  for  the  father  pointed  to  a  little  girl 
of  eight  who  had  done  this  work. 

Other  aspects  of  the  problem  were  more  discouraging. 
Some  of  the  people  were  guilty  of  carousing  and  making 
disturbance.  Neighbors  or  strangers  would  sometimes 
fill  the  streets  with  confusion.  But  a  firm  and  intelligent 
use  of  the  legal  authority  of  a  landlord  brought  order 
and  quiet  in  place  of  chaos  and  conflict.  The  necessity 
of  protecting  one's  own  family  gives  such  a  worker  a  Absenteeism, 
moral  force  which  could  never  be  gained  by  a  casual 
visitor  or  pastor.  This  is  a  form  of  service  which  cannot 
be  delegated.  Many  rent  collectors  have  made  utter 
failure  of  the  method  because  they  let  it  out  to  contract 
while  they  went  to  Europe  or  to  a  seaside  resort. 

Miss  Clare  Graff enried  says  : 

The  chief  cause  of  bad  conditions  in  manufacturing  towns, 
more  visible  in  them  than  in  large  cities,  is  absenteeism.  The 
manufacturer  of  to-day  seldom  lives  at  the  central  source  of  in- 
dustry from  which  he  draws  his  wealth.  He  lives  away  from  it, 
and  when  he  does  that  the  model  industrial  settlements  do  not 
grow  up.  ...  I  was  talking  lately  with  a  Connecticut 
manufacturer  who  has  surrounded  himself  with  conditions  that 
are  almost  ideal.  I  could  not  help  praising  him  for  many 
things  he  had  done.  There  was  practically  no  poverty  there. 
"  Why,"  he  said,  "  do  you  suppose  I  should  do  all  this  if  I  did 
not  live  here  myself?  " 

The  problem  of  housing  the  people  is  closely  con- 
nected with  that  of  cheap  and  convenient  transit  from 
center  to  circumference.  With  the  increased  provision  home's a" 
of  rapid  and  cheap  electric  trains  it  will  be  possible  for 
many  to  live  in  little  homes  of  their  own  far  from  the 
congested  regions.  This  will  have  a  tendency  to  lower 
rents  and  improve  condi^ons  at  the  center.  Where  the 
hours  of  labor  are  very  long,  or  where  they  are  irregular 


66 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Towns  made 
to  order. 


Pullman. 


and  include  much  night  work,  or  where  the  wages  arc 
excessively  low  and  uncertain,  the  wage-earner  cannot 
go  any  distance.  Thus  one  reform  waits  on  another 
and  all  must  be  carried  forward  at  the  same  time. 

In  some  instances  important  manufacturing  establish- 
ments have  been  placed  near  a  water-power  or  on  lands 
selected  on  account  of  nearness  to  a  great  commercial 
city.  The  famous  town  of  Pullman  is  a  conspicuous 
illustration.  There  is  a  town  where  the  contaminating 
influences  which  curse  a  city  are  kept  at  a  distance. 
Beautiful  buildings  and  grounds,  model  workshops, 
charming  lodge  rooms,  library,  reading-room,  church, 
theater,  playgrounds,  flower  beds,  ornamental  shade 
trees,  hotel,  are  all  so  arranged  as  to  present  a  satis- 
factory vista  at  every  step  and  to  bring  elevating  agen- 
cies near  to  all.  This  is  not  the  place  to  analyze  the 
economic  basis  of  the  plan  or  to  follow  out  the  effects  of 
the  industrial  contracts.  Unquestionably  a  generous 
public  spirit  and  a  high  appreciation  of  the  aesthetic 
values  in  industry  have  been  a  part  of  the  inspiration  of 
this  enterprise.  Much  as  we  may  dislike  centralized 
control,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  such  results  could  be 
accomplished  without  a  design  of  superior  intelligence 
carried  out  by  a  single  executive  will.  In  time  a  way 
may  be  found  to  reconcile  these  advantages  with  a  plan 
of  industry  which  agrees  with  the  democratic  tendency 
of  our  age.  But  that  will  be  when  democracy  itself  has 
improved  both  in  taste  and  cooperative  spirit  far  beyond 
anything  yet  known.  Meantime  capitalistic  leadership 
has  shown  the  way  to  build  a  town  where  nothing  gives 
serious  offense  to  the  eye. 

Modern  manufacturers  are  already  beginning  to  dis- 
cover advantages  in  assisting  their  employees  to  secure 
nomes  of  their  own,  while  themselves  shaping  the  plan 


Better  Houses  for  the  People.  67 

of  the  town  as  a  whole  with  a  view  to  health,  conve- 
nience, and  beauty.  Associations  of  wage-earners  have 
succeeded  in  building  small  homes  at  greatly  reduced 
cost,  and  the  future  will  certainly  bring  forth  many  more 
such  enterprises.  But  after  making  ample  provision  in 
such  schemes  for  well-paid  mechanics,  clerks,  and  sales- 
men, there  remains  a  multitude  of  people  whose  low 
wages  and  uncertain  occupation  render  the  purchase  of 
homes  an  unrealizable  dream.  They  will  remain  renters. 
They  must  be  near  their  task.  They  cannot  command 
capital  or  credit. 

It  is  not  enough  to  prosecute  recreant  landlords  and 

_,  Private  build- 

eject  poor  people  from  untidy  houses.     They  must  have  ing  companies. 

a  place  of  shelter.  It  has  been  found  that  stock  com- 
panies can  build  excellent  tenements,  entirely  suitable 
for  human  habitation,  rent  them  at  a  rate  which  com- 
petes with  the  miserable  dens  now  offered  to  the  poor, 
and  still  return  a  moderate  interest  on  the  investment, 
the  property  being  good  security  for  the  capital. 

The  City  and   Suburban  Homes  Company  of  New   . 
York   has   begun  its  work  under  such   favorable  aus-   EJ*"lPleof 

a  building 

pices,  with  such  competent  leadership,  and  with  such  association, 
complete  assimilation  of  the  world's  experience,  that  we 
may  venture  to  give  its  essential  features  particular 
notice.  It  has  a  capital  stock  of  $1,000,000,  assured 
by  the  purchases  of  wealthy  men,  but  open  to  the 
public  in  shares  of  ten  dollars  each.  It  offers  interest  at 
five  per  cent,  the  surplus  over  that  being  reserved  for 
extending  operations.  This  company  will  facilitate 
proprietorship  among  the  better  paid  members  of  the 
wage-earning  population.  To  this  end  it  will  purchase 
areas  of  land  where  good  transit  facilities  are  afforded. 
The  intending  purchaser  can  have  some  voice  in  select- 
ing the  style  of  his  home,  as  plans  of  small  houses 


68  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

costing  from  $1,000  to  $2,000  will  be  offered  for  choice. 
Twenty  or  thirty  houses  will  be  built  at  one  time,  so 
that  the  purchaser  can  reap  the  advantages  of  coopera- 
tive methods.  The  client  will  pay  down  ten  per  cent  of 
the  purchase  price  of  the  house  and  lot,  with  option  of 
either  a  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  years'  period  in  which  to 
repay  the  remainder  in  monthly  installments.  These 
monthly  payments  will  also  cover  the  cost  of  a  life 
insurance  policy.  All  this  will  cost  purchasers  little 
more  than  rentals  in  the  city. 

This  company  also  turns  to  the  congested  districts 

For  rent.  with   plans   of    building   model   apartment    houses   for 

wage-earners  who  cannot  escape  from  the  city  and 
cannot  command  capital  for  the  purchase  of  homes  of 
their  own.  The  plans  for  these  houses  have  been  made 
by  architects  who  have  become  experts  in  this  branch  of 
their  art.  Every  room  will  be  open  to  air  and  light. 
Every  apartment  will  have  its  private  water  closets, 
laundry  tubs,  etc.  No  bedroom  will  have  less  than  70 
square  feet  of  floor  area  and  the  smallest  living  room 
will  have  144  square  feet.  Laundries,  steam  drying- 
rooms,  baths,  gas  stoves,  and  other  conveniences  will 
be  supplied.  For  the  same  rentals  now  paid  in  slum 
dwellings  which  are  infested  with  vermin,  foul  with 
disease,  dark  and  noisome,  a  poor  family  can  secure 
twenty-five  to  thirty  per  cent  more  room.  It  is  not 
supposed  that  a  few  corporations  can  supply  the  over- 
whelming needs  of  a  metropolis  ;  but  by  the  influence  of 
competition  and  example  they  hope  to  compel  other 
landlords  to  come  up  toward  their  standard. 

Voluntary  associations  of   private  citizens  have  not 

Municipal  the  power  to  do  all  that  needs  to  be  done  for  the 
housing  of  the  poor.  We  must  invoke  the  help  of 
legislature  and  city  government  before  we  can  overtake 


Better  Houses  for  the  People.  69 

the  need.  Such  is  the  bad  power  of  ignorance,  selfish- 
ness, and  greed  that  the  community  must  use  its 
supreme  authority  in  order  to  protect  community 
interests.  Enlightened  self-interest  has  not  been  found 
in  experience  an  adequate  motive.  If  the  public  is 
defended  it  must  arm  and  rule  its  own  troops.  Every  Public  seif- 

*  ,  *     protection. 

city  must  frame  and  enforce  ordinances  which  require 
builders  to  submit  their  plans  to  public  engineers  and 
sanitarians  for  approval  in  advance.  These  building 
regulations  must  prescribe  minutely  and  specifically  the 
qualifications  of  plumbers,  the  cubic  feet  of  space  for 
rooms,  the  height  of  ceiling,  the  window  space  for 
admission  of  light,  the  number  of  stories,  the  quality  of 
materials  in  walls  and  roof,  the  method  of  ventilation, 
the  amount  of  space  which  may  be  covered  by  the 
house  and  the  amount  which  must  DC  left  free,  the  kind 
and  position  of  drain  pipes,  the  fire  escapes,  the  thick- 
ness and  materials  and  structure  of  chimneys,  and  every 
other  condition  of  health  and  safety.  The  ordinances 
of  the  larger  cities  contain  in  themselves  a  sanitary  code 
which  all  citizens  should  study. 

At  the  risk  of  being  regarded  utterly  visionary  we 
may  venture  to  suggest  that  the  future  American  will 
not  live  as  our  contemporaries  live,  in  isolated  dwellings. 
It  is  not  good  for  families  nor  for  men  to  dwell  alone. 
In  our  cities  people  hurt  each  other  by  crowding  ;  in  the 
country  they  wither  and  pine  in  solitude.  When  the 
rich  merchant  can  get  out  of  his  office  he  flies  from  the 
noisy  throng  as  from  a  plague,  and  when  it  is  possible  he 
buys  a  summer  residence  in  the  country.  The  city  en- 
feebles vitality  and  dwarfs  child  life.  Its  fret  and  bustle 
file  away  the  nerves.  In  rural  regions  the  opposite  evils 
are  seen.  Our  great  system  of  individual  landownership 
has  some  disadvantages.  Aside  from  the  fact  that  farm- 


7O  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

ing  has  become  a  competitive  art  in  which  large  capital 
and  unusual  qualities  of  administrative  ability  are  de- 
manded, there  are  other  considerations  which  point  to 

ownership  some  other  system  of  ownership  and  control  which  will 
secure  higher  degrees  of  cooperation,  a  wiser  use  of 
materials  and  machinery,  and  more  genial  arrangement 
for  residence  in  groups.  Ultimately  that  method  will 
prevail  which  most  nearly  corresponds  to  the  economic 
interest  of  the  nation,  but  a  transition  may  be  rendered 
more  easy  and  pleasant  if  the  situation  is  more  thor- 
oughly understood  and  if  a  tendency  to  sociability  is 
fostered  in  sentiment  and  action. 

After  all,  the  suggestion  here  made  is  not  at  all  with- 
out precedents  in  experience.  In  Europe  the  tillers  of 
the  soil  generally  live  in  villages  around  schools  and 
churches.  But  in  America  the  family  lives  in  a  vast  and 
unbroken  silence.  There  are  too  few  opportunities  for 
reciprocal  services  and  intellectual  interchange.  Medi- 
cal care  and  nursing  are  too  difficult  to  obtain  in  extrem- 
ity and  emergency.  Common  interests  are  discovered 

Beginnings        too  slowly  and  the  farmers  are  defrauded  by  those  who 

made.  .  J 

are  in  a  position  to  respond  more  quickly  to  the  swift 
changes  in  the  commercial  world.  No  doubt  many  diffi- 
culties are  in  the  way  of  an  adoption  of  the  European 
custom.  But  there  are  already  instances  of  the  success- 
ful application  of  the  ancient  method  in  this  country. 
As  men  set  higher  value  on  social  joys;  as  they  outgrow 
the  extreme  individualism  which  made  our  pioneers  so 
brave  and  hardy  but  also  so  rude ;  as  the  refined  pleas- 
ures of  music,  literature,  and  science  come  to  be  more 
valued,  we  may  hope  to  see  the  village  increa?':  and  the 
isolated  and  lonely  farmhouse  become  more  rare.  When 
that  movement  has  made  progress  would  it  not  be  pos- 
sible to  secure  better  fire  protection  and  so  reduce  the 


Better  Houses  for  the  People.  71 

risks  and  cost  of  insurance?  Would  it  not  be  possible  to 
have  graded  schools  where  now  the  country  teacher  is 
made  head  of  a  pedagogical  menagerie  ?  Would  it  not  Real  sociability, 
be  reasonable  to  expect  that  many  of  the  best  youth 
would  have  a  warmer  attachment  to  the  wholesome  life 
of  the  country  and  not  be  drained  off  in  excessive  num- 
bers to  swell  the  army  of  miserable  people  who  worry 
through  life  in  the  narrow  quarters  of  crowded  cities  ? 


CHAPTER  V. 


Social  cost 
of  disease. 


War  less 
destructive 
than  disease. 


PUBLIC    HEALTH. 

EVERY  adult  citizen  represents  a  large  expenditure 
for  his  rearing  and  education.  A  witty  friend  says  that 
it  requires  twenty  years  and  two  thousand  dollars  to 
transfer  the  center  of  gravity  from  the  stomach  to  the 
brain.  The  expense  is  borne  chiefly  by  the  parents  and 
by  the  community  ;  a  long  investment  before  appreci- 
able dividends  are  returned  by  the  individual.  The 
death  of  a  strong  man  is  the  loss  of  all  that  he  has  cost. 
His  sickness  is  a  serious  injury  to  the  productive  forces 
of  the  community  ;  it  disarranges  the  order  of  business 
and  hinders  the  action  of  his  associates. 

In  Boston,  in  1892,  the  average  loss  of  time  for  sick- 
ness was  twenty-four  days  in  the  year  ;  in  Berkshire 
fourteen  days  ;  in  Massachusetts  at  large  the  average 
was  seventeen  days.  The  estimated  loss  from  sickness 
among  wage-earners  was  $15,000,000,  and  for  the 
whole  population  $40,000,000.  Much  of  this  loss  was 
preventable  by  good  sanitation  ;  perhaps  $3,190,916  for 
the  working  people,  which  is  equivalent  to  the  interest 
on  $50,000,000.  The  state  could  well  afford  to  spend  a 
good  deal  of  money  on  means  of  limiting  this  waste  of 
life. 

Preventable  diseases  cause  more  loss  of  life  than  war 
with  all  its  horrors.  England,  in  twenty-two  years  of 
continuous  war,  lost  79,700  lives  ;  in  one  year  of 
cholera  she  lost  144,860  lives.  It  is  said  that  for  every 
human  being  dying  twenty  fall  sick,  and  every  case  of 

72 


Public  Health.  73 


sickness  is  equal,  on  the  average,  to  a  loss  of  550. 
Some  years  ago  over  one  fourth  of  the  deaths  in  England 
were  from  preventable  diseases.  Sanitary  improve- 
ments reduced  the  typhoid  rate  in  twelve  small  towns 
47  J/3  per  cent.  Two  hundred  years  ago  the  death-rate 
in  London  was  eighty  in  one  thousand  ;  now  it  is  21^, 
in  spite  of  greater  crowding.  A  comparison  of  the 
statistics  of  1861-70  with  those  of  1871-80  shows  that 
deaths  from  phthisis  decreased  359  per  million.  These 
figures  give  hope  and  they  condemn  neglect  as  criminal. 

4 '  Mr.  Wadly — described  as  a  stout,  robust  gentle- 
man— could  not  understand  all  the  fuss  made  nowadays 
about  the  water  question.  Mr.  Cooper  cut  the  knot. 
He  said  that  sin  had  brought  disease  into  the  world, 
and  the  Almighty  permitted  the  outbreak  of  diarrhoea 
in  their  midst  ;  neither  doctors  nor  any  one  else  could 
prevent  it.  Mr.  Cooper  is  not  far  wrong.  Sin  has 
much  -to  do  with  diarrhoea,  especially  municipal  sin, 
which  permits  a  population  to  drink  sewage,  and  then 
coolly  satisfies  itself  with  referring  the  judgment  to  the 
Almighty."  (Quoted  by  Mr.  Waring.)  Mr.  Cooper 
was  wide  of  the  truth  in  saying  that  the  doctors  could 
not  prevent  such  diseases;  for  the  doctors  have  made 
great  advance  in  spite  of  bad  theology,  gross  igno- 
rance, and  immoral  politics. 

The  economic  value  of  good  customs  may  be  felt  in 
this  way.  Many  thousands  of  our  citizens  belong  to  Disease  and 

•    •"-..  ,     •  insurance. 

mutual  benefit  societies,  lodges,  and  insurance  com- 
panies. The  rate  of  premium  depends  on  the  average 
health  and  longevity  of  the  shareholders  or  members. 
Those  who  live  longest  and  who  are  most  careful  of 
their  health  must  pay  higher  rates  because  of  the  care- 
lessness, stupidity,  awkwardness,  gluttony,  unchastity, 
lechery,  wine-bibbing,  and  beer-guzzling  of  others. 


74 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Causes  of 
disease. 


Heredity. 


Soil. 


Manufactories  are  hindered  by  the  feebleness  and  irregu- 
larity of  sick  men. 

Sanitation  is  the  interest  of  all.  Fevers  which  start 
in  a  pauper's  cellar  travel  along  drain  systems  and  rise 
up  into  the  sumptuous  bathrooms  of  marble  mansions. 
Deadly  gas,  the  product  of  ferment  in  the  lower  town, 
finds  vent  in  the  palace  which  crowns  the  hill.  En- 
feebled people,  victims  of  defective  drains  and  filthy 
streets,  become  paupers  and  transmit  to  posterity  a 
burden  of  taxation.  Depressed  by  the  enervating  in- 
fluence of  dark  rooms  and  foul  air,  many  weak  persons 
easily  become  addicted  to  alcoholism,  seeking  in  artifi- 
cial stimulants  a  momentary  elevation  above  the  feeling 
of  exhaustion,  at  the  expense  of  prolonged  misery  and 
multiplied  wrongs. 

The  foes  of  health  creep  out  of  the  ground,  sail  in  the 
atmosphere,  swim  in  the  drinking  water,  and  swarm  in 
the  food.  For  a  complete  discussion  of  the  subject  we 
refer  to  the  systematic  works,  and  here  summarize  some 
of  the  results  of  scientific  investigations. 

Generations  dead  have  bequeathed  to  us  in  imperfect 
constitutions  and  unwholesome  environments  a  sad 
legacy  of  disease.  Millions  of  the  present  race  are 
liable  to  sickness  in  consequence  of  the  ignorance  of 
their  ancestors,  of  their  vices,  their  self-indulgence, 
their  superstition,  their  neglect. 

In  towns  our  streets  and  alleys,  whose  natural  function 
is  to  facilitate  communication  and  cleanliness,  have  often 
become  the  agencies  of  destruction.  The  earth,  the 
pavements,  the  gutters  are  frequently  covered  with 
a  mud  which  embalms  the  bacteria  in  frosty  weather 
and  lets  them  loose  when  the  sun  of  spring  warms  them 
into  life.  This  mud  is  a  composition  of  organic  matters 
which  would  be  very  useful  as  fertilizer  in  the  gardens  but 


Public  Health.  75 


becomes  deadly  when  it  is  out  of  place.  This  slush  and 
paste  of  the  street  is  tracked  into  houses  and  brings 
with  it  untidiness,  debasement  of  aesthetic  and  moral 
feeling,  germs  of  disease,  and  consequent  illness. 

Beneath  the  houses,  unless  science  and  law  flash  their 
vigilant  lamps  into  the  corners,  the  cellars  are  only  too  Hidden 

J  enemies. 

often  heaped  with  all  kinds  of  decaying  matters,  vege- 
tables, cloth,  rags,  wood.  Perhaps  the  walls  are  moist 
and  covered  with  mold.  There  fevers  originate,  rise 
ghostlike  through  doors  and  floor,  and  fill  the  houses 
with  terror,  gloom,  and  mourning.  Near  city,  town, 
and  village  may  be  seen  the  damp  morass,  the  vile- 
smelling  pond,  the  stagnant  pools,  where  the  micro- 
scopic foes  of  energy  and  longevity  thrive  and  organize 
for  invasions  of  human  habitations. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  all  organic  matter,  all 
wastes  of  the  body,  if  left  to  decay,  are  terrible 
sources  of  contamination  of  the  well  water  and  of  the 
air.  On  isolated  farmsteads  and  in  villages  which  have 
not  established  systems  of  water-works  and  drains, 
medical  advice  should  be  taken  as  to  the  most  efficient 
and  practicable  methods  of  restoring  organic  matter 
to  the  cultivated  soil,  and  thus  rendering  it  useful 
rather  than  harmful.  A  Village  Improvement  Society, 
led  by  the  physicians,  may  improve  the  situation. 

In  country  places  and  villages  there  is  a  great  peril  in 
the  sources  of  drinking  water.  The  filth  of  barnyard,  water  supply. 
valuable  fertilizing  fluids,  is  drained  into  the  well  to 
poison  the  family  and  the  cattle.  The  surface  wells  are 
especially  dangerous,  for  they  take  the  organic  matter 
from  the  surface  and  while  the  water  may  be  perfectly 
clear  and  sparkling  it  is  deadly  as  a  drink  to  man 
and  beast.  The  water  supply  must  be  severely  ques- 
tioned in  the  interest  of  health.  Typhoid  fever  is  com- 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


municated  by  this  agency.  In  1894  twenty-five  of  the 
Typhoid  fever,  principal  cities  of  the  United  States  had  an  average  mor- 
tality from  typhoid  of  39.6  per  100,000  of  population. 
The  cities  which  had  the  largest  mortality  from  this 
disease  were  supplied  with  a  highly  suspicious  quality  of 
drinking  water  (Dr.  G.  H.  Rohe).  In  Chicago,  the 
extraordinary  outbreak  of  typhoid  in  1889  to  1893  led 
to  the  extension  of  the  intake  pipe  in  Lake  Michigan  to 
a  distance  of  four  miles  from  the  shore  ;  typhoid  mortal- 
ity fell  from  159.7  Per  100,000  in  1891  to  31.4  per 
100,000  in  1894. 

Temperance  people  are  engaged  in  a  noble  enterprise. 
Duty  of  tem-       Their  holy  creed  of  pure  cold  water  ought  to  be  lived 

perance  people.  J 

up  to.  But  there  are  communities  where  abstinence 
from  alcohol  is  a  sacred  custom,  and  where  a  color- 
less liquid  more  dangerous  than  beer  or  light  wine  is  the 
only  beverage  of  children.  Great  cities  send  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  children  to  school  while  their  boards  of 
education  quarrel  over  defective  filters  and  succumb 
to  the  blandishments  of  corrupt  agents.  Meantime  the 
death-rate  of  school  children  indicates  the  mortal  effects 
of  intrigue,  and  mental  incapacity  of  officials  charged 
with  a  high  task. 

Food  and  milk,  necessaries  of  life,   become  the  ve- 
Food  hides   of  unfriendly  bacteria.     The   intelligent  people 

of  our  towns  and  cities  are  unable  to  protect  themselves 
against  the  ignorance  and  neglect  of  dairymen,  farmers, 
and  railroad  officials.  Every  town  must  provide  a  large 
force  of  inspectors  and  detectives  who  are  under  orders 
to  visit  all  the  dairies,  milk  establishments,  groceries, 
and  commission  houses  which  supply  the  food  of  the 
population.  Often  the  fever  travels  a  long  distance 
from  an  infected  house  in  the  country.  The  cans 
which  contain  the  milk  are  lined  with  disease  germs. 


Public  Health.  77 


Vigilance  must  never  close  its  eyes.     The  causes  of 
death  are  hidden  in  the  means  of  life. 

In  addition  to  the  sources  of  contamination  already 
mentioned  we  must  give  heed  to  the  other  means  by  Foul  air. 
which  air  is  poisoned.  Public  buildings,  as  court-houses, 
concert  halls,  theaters,  where  multitudes  find  entertain- 
ment or  pursue  public  business,  are  frequently  so  ill 
ventilated  as  to  be  destructive  of  health.  Churches  are 
great  sinners  in  this  respect.  The  thrice-breathed  air, 
robbed  of  oxygen,  left  full  of  the  waste  products  of  a 
thousand  lungs,  is  shut  up  tightly  from  the  close  of 
Sunday  service  to  the  next  Sunday  morning.  The 
sanctuary  smells  like  a  sepulcher.  Blessed  is  the  janitor 
who  knows  oxygen  when  he  inhales  it.  Would  not  the 
sweet  and  heavenly  flowers  of  piety  thrive  more  finely  in 
a  purer  air  and  a  brighter  light?  The  minister's  sore 
throat  would  not  so  often  annoy  the  hearers  and  bring 
the  messenger  of  glad  tidings  to  an  untimely  end  of 
service,  if  the  church  were  kept  full  of  pure  air  as  well 
as  of  pure  doctrine. 

Then  in  going  to  church,  school,  shop,  and  office  we 
must  use  the  street-cars.  When  ungentlemanly  men 
are  permitted  by  law  to  expectorate  upon  the  floors  we 
may  be  sure  the  air  will  be  loaded  with  flying  microbes. 
Medical  authorities  warn  us  against  this  aggravation  of 
the  perils  of  consumption.  The  dried  sputa  of  diseased 
lungs  communicate  the  dreadful  malady  to  unsuspecting 
travelers  where  the  germs  are  driven  about  in  the  dust 
of  the  air. 

In  country  schoolhouses  one  may  only  too  frequently 
see  a  single  room  into  which  all  the  children  come  with 
wet  and  streaming  clothing.  The  schoolroom  should 
not  be  a  drying  room  but  a  place  for  teaching.  Open 
closets  for  airing  outer  garments  should  be  provided. 


78  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

Cleanliness  of  the  body  must  be  insisted  on  by  the 
teachers,  because  the  exhalations  from  the  skin  enter 
the  lungs  with  the  polluted  air.  For  this  reason  a  spray 
bath  is  an  important  adjutant  of  ventilation  in  quarters 
of  a  city  where  habits  of  bathing  are  almost  unknown. 

Public  health  is  affected  by  all  that  affects  the  material 
Economic  income  of  persons  and  families.  We  seldom  hear  of  a 
case  of  starvation  ;  but  all  charity  visitors  and  physicians 
are  familiar  with  starvation  diseases.  Insanity  is  some- 
times the  consequence  of  imperfect  food  supply,  uncer- 
tainty of  employment,  commercial  crises  and  depressions, 
class  antagonisms,  trade  disputes. 

As  long  as  society  favors  the  feebles,  gives  them 
the  means  of  existence  without  insisting  on  limitation  of 
a  feeble  posterity,  so  long  it  must  pay  the  penalty  of 
having  an  accumulating  population  of  degenerates. 
Some  day  we  shall  learn  that  it  is  not  only  a  social 
duty  to  keep  alive  those  who  already  exist,  however 
bad  or  defective,  but  also  to  see  that  disease  dies  in  the 
death  of  those  thus  humanely  sheltered.  So  long  as 
people  are  self-supporting  social  law  can  do  little  ;  but 
as  soon  as  a  family  claims  a  "right  to  labor  and  sup- 
port," the  society  has  a  right  to  determine  on  what 
terms  the  support  shall  be  given.  The  high  rate  of 
morbidity  and  mortality  in  a  particular  business  is  some- 
times due,  not  merely  to  the  fact  that  it  is  dangerous  to 
health,  but  to  the  fact  that  it  is  conducted  by  a  class  of 
persons  who  have  low  vitality  and  are  peculiarly  liable 
to  disease.  Such  are  some  of  the  problems  for  the 
social  spirit.  This  brief  chapter  is  not  a  treatise  on  pub- 
lic hygiene,  but  a  series  of  illustrations  of  the  need 
of  studying  such  a  treatise  and  applying  its  teaching. 
The  people  perish  from  lack  of  knowledge,  and  they 
will  not  seek  the  knowledge  unless  they  come  to  set  a 


Public  Health.  79 


higher  estimate  on  the  dignity  of  the  body.  When  we 
regard  our  bodies,  as  Paul  did,  as  the  "temples  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,"  we  shall  discover  that  sanitary  art  is  a 
kind  of  worship. 

A  forest  of  green  trees  will  not  appear  red  to  a  sober 
man.      The   habits   of  individuals  are  the   customs  of  influence  of 

customs  and 

society.  Take  an  example  of  the  dependence  of  public  habits, 
health  on  family  customs  :  the  reduction  of  the  typhoid 
plague  by  boiling  drinking  water.  The  board  of  health 
discovers  bacteria  of  a  malignant  and  fiendish  variety  in 
the  water  supply.  For  the  time  being  no  other  general 
source  is  available.  The  board  issues  a  ukase  com- 
manding all  housewives,  in  the  name  of  science,  to  boil 
the  drinking  water.  In  the  localities  where  the  people 
read  the  newspapers  the  water  is  boiled  and  typhoid  dis- 
appears, and  the  reputation  of  that  city  as  a  health 
resort  rises  many  degrees.  But  there  are  people  who  do 
not  know  that  these  impish  foes  of  human  health  lurk 
sleepily  in  ice,  and  such  persons  pay  the  penalty  of 
ignorance  after  they  have  melted  a  colony  of  hibernating 
bacteria  in  gallons  of  pure  water  and  come  down  sick  in 
consequence.  In  the  palatial  dining-cars  they  are  at 
pains  to  advertise  the  pure  spring  water,  but  the  pedi- 
gree of  the  ice  is  seldom  shown  on  the  card.  It  may  be 
taken  for  granted  that  it  is  always  bad,  since  it  is  usually 
employed  to  chill  and  poison  the  drinking  water. 

Public  health  means  health  of  the  people.  If  the  peo- 
ple do  not  care  for  health  no  benevolent  despot  will  step  societies, 
from  the  clouds  to  force  the  luxury  upon  them.  Pro- 
fessor Gould's  admirable  report  shows  that  voluntary 
associations  of  citizens  are  important  agents  in  sanitary 
reform  and  he  illustrates  methods  by  the  experience 
of  the  civilized  world.  He  tells  us  :  "  Some  of  the 
most  prominent  witnesses  before  the  English  Royal 


8o  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

Commission  on  the  housing  of  the  working  classes, 
of  1885,  stated  their  belief  that  the  existing  laws  were 
ample  for  dealing  with  all  sanitary  questions  if  they  were 
properly  enforced."  No  law  works  automatically  and 
mechanically.  The  benefits  of  government  are  not  en- 
joyed at  so  cheap  a  price.  Administration  depends 
upon  the  state  of  public  knowledge,  of  popular  taste  and 

Custom.  customs.      When  men  are  in  the  habit  of  expectorating 

on  the  floor  of  street-cars  and  on  sidewalks,  and  so  long 
as  they  insist  on  using  a  smoking-car  as  swine  use  a  sty, 
and  so  long  as  people  throw  fruit,  paper,  and  cigar 
stumps  in  every  direction  where  we  must  walk  and  look, 
just  so  long  will  it  be  impossible  to  have  a  clean  city. 
Where  cleanliness  is  popular,  as  in  Berlin  or  Dresden,  a 
comparatively  small  force  of  sweepers  can  maintain  a 
tidy  appearance  and  a  purer  atmosphere. 

Mr.  Gould's  summary  of  the  functions  of  sanitary  aid 

Functions  of       associations  is  as  follows  :     To  organize  and  mold  popu- 

sanitary  aid  .  ,     •  .  . 

associations.  lar  sentiment  in  favor  of  wise  sanitary  legislation.  .  .  . 
To  assist  boards  of  health  by  bringing  to  their  knowl- 
edge the  existence  of  insalubrious  conditions.  .  .  .  To 
encourage  sanitary  authorities  by  support  of  public  sen- 
timent when  they  need  it,  and  to  spur  them  to  action 
when  they  are  inclined  to  relax  effort.  To  assist  in  the 
education  of  the  poor  on  sanitary  questions  ;  teaching 
them  that  there  is  an  authority  to  appeal  to  against 
nuisances,  instructing  them  in  procedure ;  leaving  in  their 
homes  a  printed  list  of  elementary  hygienic  observances, 
giving  suggestions  on  the  care  of  infants,  and  the  con- 
ditions to  be  observed  in  the  treatment  of  persons  in  the 
cases  of  infectious  diseases.  To  publish  facts  gleaned 
from  official  sources  which  show  certain  neighborhoods 
to  be  unhealthy.  Education  lies  back  of  reform.  In 
sanitary  matters  eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  safety. 


Public  Health.  81 


Church  visitors  and  charity  workers  who  move  about 
among  the  poor  and  become  acquainted  with  them  Chanty 
ought  to  study  books  on  hygiene  and  sanitation  and 
they  should  distribute  tracts  and  sell  books  on  the 
divine  laws  of  health  as  well  as  on  the  cure  of  souls. 
Associated  charities  through  their  visitors  have  fre- 
quently discovered  and  exposed  the  violations  of  sani- 
tary laws  by  landlords  and  tenants.  Such  unofficial  in- 
spectors should  be  careful  not  to  become  mere  peevish 
faultfinders,  but  should  take  able  physicians  and  lawyers 
into  their  counsel  and  make  complaints  only  on  well- 
ascertained  facts  of  a  nature  too  serious  to  pass  over  in 
silence.  No  permanent  success  can  be  gained  without 
hearty  cooperation  with  the  constituted  authorities. 

Now   that    psychologists    are    emphasizing    psycho- 

3    .r  J  .  .         Public  water 

physics  and  physiological  psychology,  and  universities  supply  and 

,        .      ,  ,  ,  .  ,    drainage. 

are  measuring  the  physical  and  mental  capacity  or 
students  by  means  of  mathematically  accurate  instru- 
ments of  precision,  and  the  correlation  of  physical  and 
mental  processes  is  established  and  estimated  in  terms 
of  foot-pounds  and  calories,  even  the  finest  idealists 
and  spiritualists  are  insisting  on  community  care  of 
health.  The  individual  cannot  protect  himself,  and  is 
safe  only  as  all  are  defended  from  egoistic  microbes  and 
deadly  dust.  In  a  sparsely  settled  district  the  traveler 
may  drink  with  impunity  from  any  wayside  spring.  The 
pure  and  sparkling  stream  does  not  mock  his  thirst  with 
poison  in  solution  and  with  millions  of  microscopic  foes 
lying  in  the  ambush  of  a  drop.  But  our  cities  contami- 
nate their  water  supplies.  The  very  earth  becomes 
saturated  and  charged  with  deadly  elements.  The  CitytoU% 
death-rate  rises,  and,  thermometer-like,  tells  how  the 
wells  are  becoming  impure.  The  poor  people  cannot 
afford  to  import  water  from  distant  springs  and  they 


82 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


The  physicians 
foremost. 


The  spoils 
system  kills. 


suffer  first  and  most.  At  last  a  cry  of  distress  goes  up, 
as  when  the  angel  of  death  passed  over  Egypt,  smote 
the  first-born  in  palace  and  hovel,  and  filled  the  land 
with  mourning  and  terror.  Led  by  the  physicians, 
that  guild  of  benefactors  who  prefer  public  health  to 
private  gain,  the  city  begins  to  consider  the  serious 
problems  of  securing  pure  water,  of  disposing  of  sewage, 
of  destroying  or  utilizing  garbage.  ' '  Free  as  water  and 
air"  means  nothing  in  a  city,  for  everything  costs 
heavily. 

Here  again  there  is  work  for  the  social  spirit.  The 
evils  that  accompany  defective  water  supply  and  drain- 
age are  not  like  those  self-limiting  diseases  of  childhood 
which  all  must  have  and  which  soon  run  their  course. 
These  evils  grow  steadily  worse  until  the  more  intelli- 
gent citizens  consider,  unite,  and  agitate  for  improve- 
ment. In  the  United  States  it  is  even  more  important 
than  in  Europe  because  we  have  few  permanent  and 
well-trained  officials.  Our  abominable  spoils  system 
often  turns  men  out  of  office  as  soon  as  they  have 
begun  to  learn  the  best  methods.  Men  who  employ 
their  time  in  bargaining  away  franchises  to  corrupting 
corporations  have  no  time  left  for  such  trivial  matters  as 
the  health  of  citizens.  The  only  redeeming  feature  of 
the  spoils  system  is  that  it  occasionally  ejects  hopelessly 
bad  officials  and  gives  the  public  a  momentary  rest  of 
expectation.  When  the  social  spirit  has  driven  out  the 
mere  private  spirit  from  city  legislatures  we  may  hope 
for  Edenic  conditions.  Meantime  societies  of  citizens 
should  publish  health  maps  of  their  towns,  discover  with 
expert  aid  of  health  officers  the  exact  location  of  plague 
spots,  and  arouse  the  officers  to  a  more  conscientious 
discharge  of  their  duties. 

Those   comfortable  people  who  have  bathrooms  and 


Public  Health.  83 


plenty  of  living  apartments  in  their  houses  are  hardly 

able  to  realize  the  demoralizing  forces  operating:  upon  a  P«WIC  means 

0  r  .  of  cleanliness. 

family  of  eight  who  must  perform  all  the  functions  of 
daily  life  in  one  room  and  even  take  in  lodgers.  It 
furnishes  amusement  to  talk  and  write  about  the  "great 
unwashed,"  and  it  must  be  confessed  that  the  clothing 
of  many  working  people  does  smell  vilely  in  street-cars 
where  dainty  people  come  in  contact  with  men  who 
sleep  in  suffocating  rooms  and  work  in  fumes  and 
vapors  and  sweat.  And  yet  poor  people  will  wash  if 
they  have  a  fair  chance.  Bad  surroundings  make  bad 
characters.  Men  who  are  compelled  to  be  dirty  at  last 
become  indifferent  and  forget  the  luxury  of  cleanliness. 
We  have  medical  authority  for  defending  even  swine 
from  the  charge  of  the  original  sin  of  filth.  "  The  hog 
is  a  clean  animal.  It  is  certainly  a  mistaken  idea  that 
he  desires  and  needs  even  any  kind  of  a  wallow." 

In  a  certain  rescue  mission  which  deals  with  vaga- 
bonds this  has  been  put  to  a  test.  A  laundry  is  provided  Tramps  will 
where  tramps  can  wash  their  own  clothing  ;  and,  con- 
trary to  the  authority  of  the  comic  newspapers,  this 
laundry  has  a  large  patronage,  and  a  hundred  men  may 
be  seen  waiting  for  their  turn  to  use  the  hot  water  and 
soap.  In  New  York  City  a  public  bath-house  has  been 
offered  for  several  years  in  a  locality  accessible  to  the 
poor.  During  the  years  1891  to  1896  401,652"  baths 
were  taken.  During  the  year  ending  September  30, 
1896,  the  total  baths  taken  were  93,808,  of  which 
68,856  were  taken  by  men,  14,125  by  women,  4,301  by 
boys,  2,265  by  girls;  children's  free  baths,  4,261.  A 
fee  of  five  cents  entitles  the  bather  to  towels  and  soap, 
with  the  use  of  the  compartment  for  twenty  minutes.  In 
many  cities  the  spray  bath  is  used  in  place  of  the  old  tub 
or  tank  bath  system.  It  is  to  be  preferred  because  there 


84 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Public  wash- 
bouses. 


Public 
lavatories. 


is  no  danger  of  taking  contagious  diseases  as  there  is  when 
many  persons  wash  in  the  same  small  body  of  water. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  spray  bath  is  less  expensive 
and  that  it  is  more  tonic  in  its  effects.  In  a  small  town 
a  spray  bath  might  be  furnished  at  very  low  cost  and 
with  great  advantage  to  health.  Since  ' '  cleanliness  is 
next  to  godliness"  there  may  be  a  good  reason,  in  be- 
nighted, tardy,  or  otherwise  peculiar  communities,  for 
providing  in  connection  with  churches  spray  baths  for 
those  who  need  to  wash  themselves  as  well  as  their 
garments.  The  ancient  priests  were  not  willing  to  go 
unclean  to  serve  at  the  altar,  but  we  have  found  wor- 
shipers and  lusty  singers  who  are  not  so  scrupulous. 

In  crowded  cities  there  are  many  families  of  "cliff- 
dwellers  ' '  who  must  live,  sleep,  cook,  eat,  wash,  iron  in 
one  to  three  rooms.  The  noisome  steam  of  wash-tubs 
fills  the  air  with  noxious  fumes  and  detestable  odors. 
The  huge  tenement  on  days  of  laundry  work  is  to  a 
sensitive  person  unendurable.  In  hot  summer  weather 
the  stove  transforms  the  living  apartments  into  purga- 
tory. The  social  spirit  seeks  relief  in  municipal  wash- 
houses  and  laundries,  where  the  poor  can  take  their 
clothing  to  wash  and  iron  at  a  trifling  expense.  The 
cost  of  fuel  is  very  small  when  many  use  the  tubs  and 
the  enhanced  comfort  and  health  are  a  good  return  for 
the  investment. 

In  a  city  few  public  lavatories  and  places  of  conve- 
nience are  to  be  found  outside  of  hotels  and  saloons.  In 
all  European  cities  a  decent  provision  is  made  for  the 
public  in  all  parts  of  the  cities.  The  saloon  is  always 
open  to  men  at  all  hours  and  its  power  for  evil  is  aug- 
mented by  every  service  it  renders.  Health  and  morality 
suffer  from  the  inexplicable  and  inexcusable  neglect  of 
American  cities  and  towns. 


Public  Health.  85 


It  is  a  pleasure  to  record  the  wise  philanthropy  of  Mr. 
Nathan  Strauss  of  New  York,  who  could  not  endure  the  pure  milk- 
spectacle  of  the  babies  dying  all  about  him  because  their 
parents  could  not  secure  for  them  wholesome  milk. 
Science  connects  with  the  famous  name  of  Pasteur  the 
wonderful  discovery  of  a  process  by  which  the  bacteria 
in  milk  can  be  rendered  harmless  without  coagulating 
the  albumen  and  rendering  the  milk  indigestible.  But 
philanthropy  and  public  sympathy  are  necessary  to 
make  the  glorious  discovery  of  use  to  humanity.  Mr. 
Strauss  furnished  sterilized  milk  in  tenement  homes  of 
the  poor,  and  in  those  districts  the  rate  of  infant  mor- 
tality instantly  fell.  Why  should  not  city  boards  of 
health  supply  Pasteurized  milk  at  cost  to  those  who 
need? 

Mr.  Baker  of  Boston  found  that  the  grocers  in  a  tene- 
ment district  were  not  keeping  pure  milk.  He  spent 
$30,000  on  refrigerators  and  gave  them  out.  Medical 
men  saw  the  blessed  results  in  the  saving  of  infant  life. 

It  is  highly  desirable  that  parents  should  know  the 

,        ,        ,    ,         .  .       School  hygiene. 

elements  of  the  science  and  art  of  school  hygiene  m 
order  to  cooperate  with  public  authorities.  In  towns 
where  vaccination  is  universal  the  once-dreaded  scourge 
of  smallpox  is  no  longer  feared.  In  some  localities  the 
people  are  so  ignorant  and  superstitious  that  they  resist 
compulsory  vaccination,  and  in  those  localities  the  dis- 
ease is  likely  to  break  out  at  any  time.  And  as  clothing 
is  frequently  made  up  in  such  neighborhoods  the  social 
peril  is  very  great. 

It  needs  to  be  widely  understood  that  many  skin  dis- 
eases are  communicated  from  person  to  person,  and  that 
children  who  have  "ring- worm,"  certain  forms  of  sore 
eyes,  ulcerated  throats,  erysipelas,  consumption,  must 
be  excluded  from  school.  The  danger  from  whooping 


86 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Study  of 
hygiene. 


Health  and 
politics. 


Progress. 


cough,  scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  measles,  and  mumps  is 
more  generally  appreciated.  But  it  is  highly  desirable 
that  parents  should  be  gathered  into  the  schoolhouses 
and  instructed  by  sanitarians,  with  the  aid  of  the  magic 
lantern,  so  that  they  may  more  clearly  see  the  necessity 
for  the  precautions  urged  by  men  of  science. 

The  foundation  of  national  health  must  be  laid  in  the 
teaching  of  physiology  and  hygiene  in  the  public  schools 
and  by  extension  methods  among  adults.  Already 
great  advance  has  been  made. 

After  all,  public  health  is  at  the  mercy  of  public 
officers.  Sanitation  on  a  large  scale  is  the  work  of 
experts  employed  by  commonwealth  or  municipality. 
The  health  of  the  community  depends  in  great  part  on 
its  political  morality  and  intelligence.  No  large  scheme 
of  drainage,  sewage,  water  supply,  food  and  milk  inspec- 
tion, can  be  carried  out  by  individuals  or  voluntary 
associations.  Hence  the  supreme  importance  of  efficient 
local  government.  All  heads  of  households  need  to 
know  enough  of  sanitation  and  hygiene  to  regulate  their 
own  conduct  and  to  realize  the  necessity  of  expert 
service  and  common  cooperation.  But  for  the  highest 
success  in  resisting  disease  we  must  depend  on  engi- 
neers, boards  of  health,  and  sanitary  police.  The  con- 
nection between  public  health  and  political  morality  is 
close  and  vital. 

The  social  spirit  has  employed  the  inventions  of  sci- 
ence and  art  in  the  interest  of  the  public.  A  century 
ago  only  two  cities  had  water  works.  Diseases  due  to 
ignorance  of  sanitation,  to  lack  of  good  and  abundant 
water  and  defective  drainage,  have  retreated  before 
patriotism  armed  with  knowledge.  Smallpox  is  no 
longer  dreaded.  Yellow  fever,  which  once  raged  in 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore,  has  crept 


Public  Health.  87 


back  to  the  dismal  swamps  of  undrained  districts. 
Dickens' s  description  of  the  devastations  of  malaria  in 
the  fertile  regions  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  has  long 
since  ceased  to  be  applicable.  Mark  Tapley  would  now 
find  no  such  occasion  for  the  display  of  his  devotion 
and  cheerful  courage  in  a  struggle  with  ague. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


Their  signifi- 
cance for  civil- 
ization. 


Social  function 
of  roads. 


GOOD  ROADS  AND  COMMUNICATION. 

THE  power  of  the  Roman  Empire  depended  in  great 
measure  on  its  splendid  roads,  the  traces  of  which  may 
yet  be  found  not  only  in  Italy  but  also  in  the  remote 
parts  of  Europe  which  once  came  under  the  sway  of  the 
Eternal  City.  Our  own  civilization  could  not  advance  at 
railroad  speed  without  railroads.  The  movement  to 
secure  better  means  of  transport  and  communication  is 
supported  and  urged  by  many  converging  interests. 
The  farmers,  with  growing  intelligence,  see  that  with 
smooth,  hard  highways  they  can  get  their  grain  to 
market  at  much  less  cost  and  under  more  favorable  con- 
ditions for  the  market.  The  capitalists  are  eagerly 
looking  for  employment  of  their  idle  funds.  The  noble 
army  of  bicyclers,  to  whom  tacks,  broken  glass,  ruts, 
mud,  and  heavy  sand  seem  mortal  enemies  of  joy,  are 
allies  of  the  associations  consecrated  to  improved  ways. 
All  social  enterprises  wait  upon  this  enterprise.  Indus- 
trial operations  are  fostered  ;  the  circulation  of  money 
in  remote  districts,  the  interchange  of  courtesies,  the 
growth  of  ideas  and  of  fellowship,  the  prosperity  of 
schools,  lodges,  churches,  sociables,  entertainments, 
spelling-matches,  and  musical  classes  are  all  assisted 
by  good  roads.  It  is  said  that  city  people  go  insane 
because  they  feel  so  much  jar  and  crash  and  crowding, 
while  country  folk  become  insane  because  of  isolation 
and  loneliness.  Good  roads  favor  nervous  equilibrium. 


Good  Roads  and  Communication.  89 

Military  men  advocate  good  roads  as  a  measure  of 
defense  and  aggression  in  times  of  war  or  riot. 

Each  person  who  feels  the  desire  to  advance  the  com- 
mon welfare  can  have  a  share  in  this  reform  without 
joining  a  club  or  spending  too  much  time  on  committees 
at  the  county  seat.  One  may  build  a  foot  bridge  over  a 
stream  where  many  like  to  cross.  A  tree  which  has 
fallen  across  the  road  may  be  cut  into  firewood  and 
drawn  away.  A  Good  Samaritan  may  replace  a  broken 
plank  where  a  horse  might  break  its  leg.  Another 
might  give  his  dominie  a  point  for  his  sermon  on  ' '  the 
highway  of  holiness"  by  hinting  that  more  people  would 
come  to  church  if  the  county  road  were  put  in  better  re- 
pair, better  drained,  and  covered  with  gravel.  Almost 
all  can  serve  their  country  by  agitation  and  talk.  In 
this  country,  as  in  Holland,  a  deal  of  good  grist  is 
ground  out  by  windmills,  and  so  they  are  not  to  be 
despised.  They  are  useful  as  well  as  picturesque. 

The  very  effort  to  secure  better  paths  of  travel  has  a 
moralizing  influence.  Hon.  J.  M.  Rusk  said : 

No  one  man  can  improve  the  highways  of  a  neighborhood.    Moral 
All  must  act  together  in  behalf  of  their  common  interest,  and  influence  of 
people  in  yielding  something  to  the  common  interest  will  in  * 
the  end,  by  intelligent  cooperation  and  systematic  methods,  be 
the  recipients  of  benefits  far  beyond  any  possible  results  arising 
from    discordant   and    uncompromising  individual  demands. 
Every  person  must  be  brought  to  see  this  and  be  induced 
to  yield  his  individual  interest  to  a  wider  range  of  road  im- 
provement and  to  a  single  system    wider  than  the  horizon 
as  seen  from  his  own  doorstep. 

Thus  a  spiritual  bond  of  unselfish  devotion  to  com- 
mon well-being  is  the  prelude  and  condition  of  the 
material  road  which  facilitates  communication  between 
towns.  The  thing  is  the  outside  of  an  idea  and  the  idea 
is  the  inside  of  a  thing. 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Economy  of 
good  roads. 


Mud  tax.' 


It  is  estimated  that  the  total  weight  of  farm  products 
marketed  in  the  United  States  each  year  amounts  to 
313,000,000  tons.  It  is  said  that  the  cost  of  hauling 
this  may  be  $946,500,000.  It  has  been  estimated, 
although  there  may  be  some  exaggeration  in  the  esti- 
mate, that  $600,000,000  of  this  could  be  saved  if  we  had 
smooth,  hard  roads.  Such  figures  are  largely  conjectu- 
ral, but  they  help  us  to  realize  the  vastness  of  the 
interest  at  stake  and  the  possibility  of  an  immense 
economy  through  improvements.  We  have  many  strong 
testimonies  of  practical  experts  that  the  improvement  of 
country  roads  may,  by  suitable  methods,  be  made  to 
pay,  and  that  without  undue  financial  strain.  The 
problem  is  not  the  same  for  all  localities,  and  experience 
teaches  us  to  avoid  the  crushing  load  of  public  debt.  A 
moderate  debt,  however,  may  indicate  a  real  gain. 
Hon.  Edward  Burrough,  president  of  the  board  of 
agriculture  in  New  Jersey,  is  reported  as  saying  that  on 
a  new  stone  road  from  Merchantville  to  Camden  his 
teams  haul  eighty-five  to  one  hundred  baskets  of  pota- 
toes where  they  formerly  hauled  twenty-five.  ' '  One  of 
our  counties  issued  $450,000  of  four  per  cent  bonds  and 
put  down  sixty  miles  of  stone  roads,  averaging  sixteen 
feet  wide,  and  though  they  pay  taxes  to  meet  the  inter- 
est on  these  bonds,  their  tax-rate  is  now  lower  than 
it  was  before  the  road  was  built. ' '  The  increased  value 
of  property  and  the  enhanced  returns  from  product  at 
lower  expense  for  marketing  make  the  investment 
reasonable. 

The  farmer  does  not  escape  a  heavy  road  tax  even  if 
not  one  dollar  is  spent  on  public  highways.  The  ' '  mud 
tax ' '  is  heavier  than  that  imposed  by  the  authorities, 
for  it  is  paid  ' '  in  wearing  out  his  horses,  his  wagon  and 
harness,  in  wallowing  through  the  highway  with  half  a 


Good  Roads  and  Communication.  91 

load  ;  in  wasting  his  time  waiting  for  the  sun  to  make  it 
passable  in  the  spring  ;  in  driving  to  town  with  a  double 
team  when  one  of  the  horses  might  be  left  at  home  to  do 
farm  work  if  the  road  to  town  was  smooth  and  hard  as 
it  should  be  "  (Mr.  Otto  Dorner). 

An  interesting  and  suggestive  illustration  of  our  sub- 
ject comes  to  light  in  the  report  of  Mr.  R.  O.  West,  at- 
torney of  the  city  of  Chicago.  On  January  i,  1897, 
there  were  pending  in  the  courts  684  suits  at  law  against 
the  city  with  claims  for  damages  amounting  to  $9,393,- 
600.  The  total  amount  of  damages  sustained  by  the 
city  in  1896  for  personal  injuries  was  $216,369.50.  It 
cost  something  over  $55  to  defend  each  case.  Physical 
and  moral  causes  are  closely  linked,  for  ' '  the  large 
increase  of  suits  was  due  to  the  increase  of  population, 
the  bad  condition  of  the  wooden  sidewalks,  especially  in 
the  outlying  districts,  and  the  agencies  instituted  and 
abetted  by  certain  lawyers  for  the  purpose  of  collecting 
all  suits  of  this  character  and  prosecuting  them  on  com- 
mission of  one  half  of  all  money  recovered  and  without 
any  cost  or  trouble  to  the  clients."  The  principle  illus- 
trated may  be  applied  to  cities  in  all  parts  of  the  land. 
The  entire  community  is  responsible  for  defects  in  side- 
walks, bridges,  or  roads.  The  injured  members  can 
make  their  claim  good  as  against  all  others.  It  is  the 
common  interest  that  the  sidewalks  should  be  sound  and 
safe. 

The  recent  enthusiasm  for  better  roads  is  manifesting 
itself  and  seeking  means  to  gain  its  ends  in  various  Methods 
directions.  Obviously  the  first  step  was  to  employ  the 
old  system  of  "working  the  roads"  where  it  prevails 
with  more  rigid  rules  and  higher  efficiency.  The  diffi- 
culty has  been  to  secure  real  work  from  those  who  took 
this  way  to  pay  their  road  taxes.  Much  depended  on 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Cash  wages. 


Working 
prisoners. 


the  character  of  the  official  in  charge.  Frequently 
where  there  was  honest  labor  with  a  minimum  of  shirk- 
ing the  effort  was  mostly  wasted  because  it  was  put  forth 
without  rational  plans.  It  has  sometimes  been  found 
that  the  town  officers  can  secure  far  better  results  if  the 
taxes  are  paid  in  money  and  the  laborers  are  hired  to 
perform  specific  tasks  under  direction  of  the  overseers. 
The  commutation  of  money  rates  for  personal  service  is 
according  to  the  natural  order  of  society  with  a  de- 
veloped trade  and  currency  system.  "Working  out 
a  road  tax  "  belongs  to  a  primitive  barter  system,  and  it 
is  especially  liable  to  abuse  in  large  towns  with  dense 
population.  In  some  places  the  assessments  have  been 
made  according  to  some  scale  of  benefits  received  and 
laid  upon  the  property  which  gained  most  from  the  im- 
provement. When  it  seems  apparent  that  the  wisest 
method  involves  a  distribution  of  cost  over  several  years, 
townships  and  counties  have  found  it  best  to  borrow 
money  for  the  early  completion  of  a  road  and  pay  in- 
terest on  bonds.  In  still  other  regions  the  state,  as 
in  Massachusetts,  has  undertaken  the  direction  and 
development  of  the  scheme  on  a  scale  impossible  for 
smaller  districts.  It  is  manifest  that  a  commonwealth 
can  command  a  higher  order  of  engineering  talent  than 
is  possible  for  a  township  or  county.  And  where  a 
drainage  system  must  be  completed  in  order  to  secure 
dry  road-beds  the  state  must  frequently  control  the 
construction  and  adjust  levels  as  between  the  smaller 
legal  divisions. 

Many  friends  of  the  cause  have  strongly  advocated 
the  employment  of  convicts  on  the  public  highways. 
The  good  roads  movement  has  not  always  employed 
sound  reason,  and  many  arguments  and  suggestions 
born  of  zeal  more  than  of  understanding  must  be 


Good  Roads  and  Communication.  93 

revised.  It  is  proposed  to  employ  convicts  on  the  high- 
ways, the  argument  being  that  their  labor  is  cheap  and 
will  not  compete  with  the  free  labor  of  wage-earners. 
The  fact  is  that  there  is  no  non-competitive  work.  If 
the  convict  is  idle  the  taxpayer  must  support  him.  If 
the  convict  mends  the  country  road  there  is  one  place 
less  for  a  wage-earner  of  some  kind.  But  any  one  who 
has  ever  seen  a  chain  gang,  and  has  not  been  already 
degraded  by  the  custom,  cannot  think  of  tolerating  the 
employment  of  convicts  before  the  public  eye.  They 
are  likely  to  be  morally  offensive  in  speech  and  gesture. 
To  prevent  escape  they  must  be  guarded  by  riflemen 
and  a  certain  number  will  be  shot  down  every  year. 
The  vaunted  boast  that  we  are  seeking  the  reformation 
of  the  offender  and  not  revenge  comes  to  be  a  hollow 
mockery.  Some  states  and  countries  have  thus  tried 
the  experiment  and  such  results  always  follow.  The 
low  productive  energy  of  prisoners  under  such  condi-  Difficulties, 
tions  and  the  high  cost  of  supervision  and  guarding 
render  the  economic  argument  very  weak.  It  is  entirely 
possible  to  employ  convicts  and  country  vagrants  within 
enclosures  at  breaking  stone.  This  may  be  found 
feasible  in  some  localities.  But  the  chief  end  of  impris- 
onment is  to  teach  and  train  the  offender,  if  he  is  still 
young,  to  work  at  some  useful  calling.  If  he  is  old  and 
hardened  the  occupation  is  less  important,  but  he  must 
be  treated  with  humanity.  This  view  has  been  branded  practicable, 
"scntimentalism,"  but  it  is  based  on  direct  observation 
of  the  chain  gang  and  on  the  almost  unanimous  con- 
sensus of  opinion  of  students  of  penology.  Work  in  the 
open  air  is  highly  desirable,  reformatory,  and  hygienic, 
but  not  work  of  criminals  in  contact  with  the  public. 

There  are  certain  advantages  and  elements  of  fairness 
in  a  state  tax  for  the  more  important  highways.     If  the 


94  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

state  offers  a  county  or  township  a  certain  sum  on  con- 
state aid.  dition  that  the  district  thus  aided  shall  complete  a  certain 
length  of  road  according  to  specifications,  there  is  at 
once  a  motive  for  local  enterprise  and  a  guarantee  of 
superior  workmanship.  When  it  is  considered  that 
cities  are  to  receive  much  of  the  benefit  it  seems  only 
just  that  they  should  divide  the  expense  with  farmers, 
and  this  can  be  adjusted  only  by  a  state  tax.  Where 
the  general  interest  is  far  more  important  than  the  local 
interest  a  state  road  may  justly  be  constructed  on  the 
basis  of  a  state  tax. 

Zealous  advocates  of  smooth  paths,  stumbling  home 
after  dark  and  dragging  their  bicycles,  are  not  always 
Caution.  careful  to  hear  the  other  side.     The  farmer  who  must 

pay  for  the  improvements  must  be  treated  with  con- 
sideration. After  all,  if  he  seems  slow  he  is  in  the 
majority  and  reads  his  newspaper.  If  he  pays  taxes 
rather  than  shares  or  money  rent  he  is  likely  to  cool  the 
ardent  road-menders  with  his  objections,  as  follows  :  dirt 
roads  are  not  bad  all  the  year,  but  only  a  few  weeks  at  a 
time,  and  when  they  are  good  they  are  very  good 
indeed  ;  much  smoother,  softer,  and  quieter  than  the 
harsh  gravel.  No  farmer  drives  on  a  gravel  road  when 
the  noiseless  side  track  is  passable.  And  as  to  cost : 
with  corn  at  sixteen  cents  a  bushel  and  oats  at  twelve 
cents  a  bushel  the  improvement  of  roads  is  too  serious 
an  expense  to  make  a  present  to  bicyclers  and  pleasure- 
drivers.  These  conservative  landowners  recall  the  craze 
of  railroad  and  canal  construction  when  counties  and 
states  plunged  into  bankruptcy  and  repudiation,  or 
pressed  the  groaning  population  during  a  whole  genera- 
tion with  heavy  interest  charges.  He  desires  a  solid 
and  even  surface  for  his  wagon,  but  he  pauses  until  the 
expense  can  be  estimated.  He  sees  that  "political" 


Good  Roads  and  Communication.  95 

management  has  so  increased  the  cost  of  making  gravel 
roads  in  some  places  that  he  sighs  for  the  toll  roads 
which  cost  much  less  than  his  present  road  tax.  It  was 
only  fair  that  this  reputable  body  should  be  heard,  as  it 
must  be  heeded  at  the  polls. 

The  inventions  of  our  age  are  at  the  service  of 
sociability.  The  condensation  of  population  has  made  Electric  roads, 
better  means  of  transport  and  communication  practi- 
cable ;  science  and  art  have  supplied  the  contrivances 
for  convenience  ;  and  the  spiritual  dispositions  of  men 
have  cooperated  with  all  self-regarding  motives  to  make 
swift  and  safe  transport  desirable.  In  a  country  where, 
as  in  China,  the  strongest  unit  of  association  is  the 
extended  family  or  clan,  and  where  a  national  and  cos- 
mopolitan feeling  is  very  weak,  railroads  and  telegraphs 
are  regarded  as  an  impertinence.  The  growth  of  social- 
ity is  not  merely  the  result  of  improvement,  it  is  also 
a  cause  of  research,  invention,  and  common  use  of  im- 
provements. It  is  fraternity  as  well  as  drills  and  dyna- 
mite which  bores  tunnels  through  granite  mountains. 

It  is  impossible  to  set  bounds  to  the  use  of  electric 

,,  ,  ,        ,       ,  .  Effects  of 

cars.     We  can  already  see  that  the  fresh  air  and  green  cheap  transit. 

fields  of  the  country  are  not  so  far  from  the  city  dweller 

as  they  were  a  few  years  ago.     We  can  already  safely 

prophesy  that  farmers  will  soon  be  carrying  grain  and 

vegetables   to   market  and  fertilizers  back  to  the  soil 

at  the  rate  of  twenty  or  thirty  miles  an  hour  instead  of 

four  miles  an  hour.     Even  gravel  roads  will  have  their 

rivals.     The  social  influence  of  this  change  is  beyond 

present  calculation.     Life's  pulse  will  beat  more  rapidly. 

Let   us   trust  that  a   more  kindly  understanding  will 

be  fostered  when  men  of  city  and  farm  meet  each  other 

more    frequently   to   exchange  sentiments   and    ideaa, 

as  well  as  commodities. 


96  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

The  transportation  of  persons  and  goods  is  always 
ca°tik>Mimii~  closely  connected  with  the  instruments  of  intellectual 
correspondence.  No  technical  treatment  of  our  system 
of  telegraphs  and  postal  service  is  here  attempted.  But 
the  value  of  these  agencies  to  the  sense  of  fellowship  and 
the  enlargement  of  life  must  be  pointed  out.  The  pro- 
duction and  exchange  of  material  goods  is  merely  a 
"preliminary  item."  The  system  of  communication 
serves  not  only  the  interests  of  trade  but  also  those 
of  intelligence,  art,  and  religion.  The  expansion  of 
souls  by  bartering  spiritual  goods  is  the  chief  concern  of 
humanity.  Financial  rewards  and  social  fame  are  prizes 
sufficient  to  awaken  the  talents  of  inventors.  The  labo- 
ratories of  universities  prepare  the  scientific  basis  for 
useful  machines.  Ordinary  motives  may  be  trusted 
to  extend  lines  of  telegraphs  and  telephones  among  a 
people  eager  to  learn  and  capable  of  moral  union.  Capi- 
talists all  over  the  civilized  world  are  eager  to  find 
a  place  for  lucrative  investment.  The  miser's  gold  goes 
begging  for  some  man-serving  task  in  order  that  it  may 
earn  its  six  per  cent,  and  the  most  mercenary  slave 
of  Mammon  is  yoked  up  with  philanthropy  to  do  the 
bidding  of  the  common  will. 

It  is  true  that  a  great  nation  must  be  served  by  great 
Social  combinations  of  capital ;  and  these  powerful  hired  hands 

telegraphs.  are  not  always  quickly  obedient  to  that  largest  wisdom 
which  is  akin  to  justice  and  goodness.  But  the  nation 
which  found  a  way,  through  a  bloody  and  sorrowful 
road,  to  abolish  slavery,  will  know  how  to  keep  its  cap- 
tains of  industry  within  the  bounds  fixed  by  the  condi- 
tions of  universal  welfare.  In  the  meantime  telegraphs 
and  telephones,  wl  lie  in  economic  form  private  monop- 
olies, are  really  the  nerve  system  of  the  social  body,  the 
material  means  of  welding  this  nation  and  all  nations 


Good  Roads  and  Communication.  $7 

into  one  spiritual  community.  It  is  incredible  that 
a  system  whose  social  function  it  is  to  serve  humanity 
should  ever  come  to  be  a  mere  minister  of  selfishness. 

The  postal  system  of  our  government  has  made 
familiar  and  inviting  one  way  by  which  the  people 
can  directly  control  the  machinery  of  spiritual  inter- 
change. There  is  no  large  party  ready  to  urge  that  this 
department  of  social  service  be  handed  over  to  private 
control.  All  are  satisfied  with  the  arrangement.  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Germany  have  government  ownership 
of  these  organs  of  mental  traffic.  Vast  as  is  the  power 
of  concentrated  capital  and  managerial  shrewdness,  the 
laws  of  life  are  on  the  side  of  regulation  in  the  general 
interest,  and  the  tendency  of  the  ages  is  against  selfish 
uses  of  wealth. 

Cheap  postage  has  rendered  a  great  service  to  human 
culture,  to  family  affection,  to  commercial  progress,  to  the 
growth  of  a  religious  kingdom  among  men.  Our  legisla- 
tors have  not  viewed  a  moderate  "deficit"  with  alarm, 
because  facility  of  intercourse  pays  for  its  cost  in  ten 
thousand  ways.  Doubtless  with  completed  civil  service 
reform,  with  a  stable  force  of  employees  who  owe  their 
places  to  their  own  efficiency  and  fidelity  and  not  to  the 
selfish  caprices  of  political  "  bosses,"  we  shall  see  prog- 
ress in  the  Post-office  Department,  which  already  occu- 
pies so  honorable  a  place. 

We  ought  to  consider  that  we  are  still  predominantly 
an  agricultural  people  ;  that  the  majority  of  our  popula-  ! 
tion  are  farmers  ;  that  all  are  equally  entitled  as  tax- 
payers to  the  best  advantages  of  our  government ;  and 
that  rural  neighborhoods  need  the  earliest  possible  infor- 
mation about  crops,  markets,  and  social  movements. 
Urban  residents  can  learn  much  from  conversation, 
Inokted  farmers  are  those  who  most  of  all  require  h«lp 


98 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Electric  bonds 
of  country 
and  city. 


World-Wide 
view. 


from  a  perfect  organization  for  the  diffusion  of  fresh  and 
accurate  knowledge.  Private  enterprise  will  never 
extend  an  express  line,  a  telegraph,  telephone,  or  an 
electric  service  where  it  does  not  promise  prompt  cash 
dividends  ;  but  the  post-office  sends  a  letter  across  the 
continent  at  as  low  a  rate  as  is  required  for  a  city  deliv- 
ery. Why  should  not  the  mail  be  collected  and 
distributed  at  every  farm  gate  every  day?  Farmers 
cannot  afford  to  go  to  town  for  letters  and  papers  when 
a  much  less  expensive  agency  can  be  furnished  without 
additional  machinery.  We  may  confidently  look  for  a 
gradual  and,  perhaps,  rapid  extension  of  a  free  daily 
delivery  system  in  all  settled  farming  districts. 

With  extended  electric  communication  and  transpor- 
tation, with  the  telephone  ringing  at  every  village,  and 
with  electric  power  carried  afar  along  metal  wires,  we 
may  look  for  the  extension  of  manufactures  in  country 
places.  This  tendency  may  be  a  serious  counterpoise 
to  the  present  mad  rush  to  the  crowded  and  unhealthy 
cities.  It  may  come  to  mean  a  real  cottage  and  garden, 
a  cow  and  a  poultry  yard  for  millions  of  wage-workers 
or  small  independent  mechanics.  It  may  mean  that  the 
ideas  of  Ruskin  and  Morris  are  not  so  wild  after  all,  and 
that  artistic  handwork  may  in  some  degree  replace  the 
monotonous,  machine-made,  inartistic  products  of  the 
huge,  ugly  factories  of  the  towns.  It  is  difficult  to  fore- 
see the  actual  course  of  future  events,  but  the  outlook 
for  a  saner,  finer,  healthier  life  is  surely  brightened 
by  electric  motors  and  cars  and  telephones. 

We  are  led  forward  to  a  still  wider  vision.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  in  1896  a  message  was  transmitted 
around  the  world  in  fifty  minutes,  the  words  being  com- 
posed by  Mr.  Chauncey  M.  Depew  :  ' '  God  creates, 
nature  treasures,  science  utilizes  electrical  power  for  the 


Good  Roads  and  Communication.  99 

grandeur  of  nations  and  the  peace  of  the  world. ' '      The 

telegraph   aids  in  settling  or  avoiding  disputes,  leads 

to  clearer  understanding,  allays  suspicion,  puts  a  speedy 

end   to  venomous   rumors    and    rankling    memory  of 

injury,  terrifies  the  criminal  who  flies  from  justice  only  signal  service. 

to  discover  that  the  lightning  tracks  its  prey.     The  ship 

captain  looks  up  at  the  weather  bureau  signal  for  a 

warning  of    storms.      The  farmer  reaps   or  journeys 

according  to  the  knowledge  brought  from  all  stations  of 

observers.     And  thus  the  network  of  swift  conveying 

lines,  magical  as  genius,  ministers  to  common  utilities 

and  to  the  cementing  of  cosmopolitan  friendship. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


Natural  law  in 

the  economic 
w.rld. 


Labor  already 
organized. 


THE    FIRST    FACTOR    OF    INDUSTRIAL     REFORM  :     THE 
SOCIALIZED    CITIZEN. 

Our  remedies  oft  in  ourselves  do  lie, 
Which  we  ascribe  to  heaven. 

OUR  first  duty  in  respect  to  ' '  the  present  social 
system"  is  not  to  mend  it  or  praise  it,  but  to  under- 
stand it ;  not  to  do  something,  but  to  find  whether  any- 
thing can  be  done  ;  not  to  fly  into  a  passion  and  lose 
our  wits,  but  to  concentrate  our  wits  on  definite  prob- 
lems. If  we  find  that  some  knots  are  too  hard  to  untie 
we  may  let  them  rest  while  we  attempt  what  is  prac- 
ticable. The  immediate  field  of  this  book  requires  us 
to  give  undue  space  and  emphasis  to  change  and  re- 
construction by  conscious  plan,  and  this  may  lead  us 
aside  from  a  point  where  we  see  facts  in  true  per- 
spective. Dissent  at  many  vital  points  need  not  prevent 
us  from  admitting  that  Mr.  Spencer  is  profoundly  right 
in  saying  : 

Blind  to  the  significance  of  innumerable  facts  surrounding 
them,  multitudes  of  men  assert  the  need  for  the  organization 
of  labor.  Actually  they  suppose  that  at  present  labor  is  un- 
organized. All  these  marvelous  specializations  and  these  end- 
lessly ramifying  connections,  which  have  age  by  age  grown  up 
since  the  time  when  the  members  of  savage  tribes  carried  on 
each  for  himself  the  same  occupations,  are  non-existent  for 
them  ;  or  if  they  recognize  a  few  of  them,  they  do  not  perceive 
that  these  form  but  an  infinitesimal  illustration  of  the  whole. 
A  fly  seated  on  the  surface  of  the  body  has  about  as  good  a 
conception  of  its  internal  structure  as  one  of  these  schemers 
has  of  the  social  organization  in  which  he  is  embedded. 


The  First  Factor  of  Industrial  Reform.         101 

This  caustic  criticism  of  amateur  economic  reform  is 
none   too  severe.     It  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  a  Amateur 

economists. 

criminal  offense  for  a  man  to  practice  the  art  of  surgery 
or  medicine  or  even  pharmacy  without  having  given 
proof  of  training.  As  society  becomes  more  compiex 
and  intelligent  it  becomes  more  exacting.  The  medical 
schools  are  compelled  to  lengthen  their  course  from  one 
year  of  study  to  five  years.  A  knowledge  of  industrial 
history,  of  economic  principles,  of  political  and  legal 
development,  is  even  more  necessary  to  a  social  ad- 
viser than  knowledge  of  embryology  and  anatomy  is 
to  the  physician.  Tinkering  the  industrial  system  is 
far  more  serious  than  setting  bones  or  tying  arteries. 
In  both  cases  a  community  must  get  on  with  such 
knowledge  and  leadership  as  it  can  command,  and  the 
cooperation  of  laymen  is  unavoidable.  But  educated 
laymen  are  not  nearly  so  apt  as  ignorant  people  to 
prescribe  medicine. 

It  is  obviously  essential  to  national  welfare  both  that 
there  should  be  a  body  of  expert  social  students  and 
that  the  people  be  generally  so  well  informed  that  they  infonMtl°"- 
will  be  discreet  in  the  selection  of  administrators.  All 
citizens,  and  even  children,  may  be  taught  to  treat 
emergency  cases  with  much  skill  and  to  give  ' '  first  aid 
to  the  sick  and  injured"  while  a  physician  is  coming. 
So  all  citizens  in  a  self-governing  republic  must  learn 
enough  of  economic  principles  and  history  to  guide 
them  in  business  and  in  voting.  It  is  impossible  to 
delegate  all  questions  of  finance,  taxation,  tariff,  and 
municipal  franchises  to  cliques  of  benevolent  despots 
who  enjoy  a  monopoly  of  science.  The  final  jury,  after 
all  the  learned  advocates  and  judges  have  spoken,  is 
the  common  people,  who,  as  Lincoln  said,  must  be 
favorites  of  the  Creator  since  he  made  so  many  com- 


IO2 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Vitality  of  the 

industrial 

system. 


The  eternal 
purpose. 


mon  people.  If  manufacturers  and  bankers  desire  the 
majority  to  vote  intelligently  they  must  come  down 
from  their  thrones  and  communicate  their  knowledge  to 
their  political  masters  at  the  polls.  There  is  no  escape 
from  this  responsibility  save  in  bureaucracy  and  des- 
potism, and  the  campaign  of  1896  made  this  apparent 
to  the  most  haughty  and  obtuse  of  aristocrats.  There 
is  one  method  open  to  wealth  and  that  is  only  too  often 
taken,  the  thorny  path  of  bribery  and  corrupt  purchase 
of  councils  and  legislatures.  But  let  us  hope  that  an 
enlightened  social  spirit  will  make  this  way  impassable 
even  for  billionaires. 

The  social  body  has  inexhaustible  vitality  or  it  could 
never  have  survived  the  bleeding,  purging,  and  quack 
economic  nostrums  which  have  so  long  been  admin- 
istered for  its  health.  Great  is  the  healing  power  of 
nature,  since  the  nation  has  outlived  not  only  the 
drafts  of  crime  and  pauperism,  the  thefts  of  officials  and 
legislatures,  the  parasitic  robbery  of  selfish  politicians, 
the  jobbery  of  social  wreckers,  the  depleting  effects  of 
famine,  pestilence,  war,  and  city  aldermen,  but  even  the 
well-meaning  but  uninstructed  schemes  of  philanthropic 
reformers.  Mr.  Gilman  paints  these  incompetents  with 
accuracy  : 

Six  or  twelve  months  are  quite  sufficient  time  for  them  to  run 
up  a  pretty  gingerbread  work  of  the  walls  of  their  Utopia,  to 
pave  the  streets  with  candy,  and  set  fountains  of  sweetened 
honey  running  in  all  the  public  squares.  The  expense  of  the 
journey  to  the  pasteboard  city  is  made  very  low,  and  every 
man  may  command  a  copy  of  an  infallible  guide-book. 

There  must  be  in  the  very  structure  of  the  world  a 
wisdom  which  transmutes  error  itself  into  wisdom  and 
crime  into  progress,  or  the  end  of  the  world  would  have 
come  with  explosion  long  ago. 


The  First  Factor  of  Industrial  Reform.        103 

The  primary  wants  of  men,  as  hunger  and  desire  for 
3helter  and  comfort,  and  the  secondary  motives,  as  love  The  industrial 

J  '  system  a 

of  admiration,  praise,  decoration,  and  worship,  have  growth, 
stimulated  men  to  labor.  Increase  of  population  on  a 
limited  territory  with  limited  resources  sharpened  com- 
petition between  individuals  and  between  groups.  Acci- 
dental discoveries  with  chance  division  of  labor  revealed 
the  fact  that  specialization  secured  increased  product  at 
diminished  cost.  By  insensible  gradations,  so  faint  that 
history  has  seldom  preserved  an  account  of  the  transi- 
tions, the  several  trades  developed.  The  order  of 
development  was  noticed  and  reflected  upon  only  when 
civilization  had  already  attained  a  high  level.  No  man 
planned  this  order  in  advance.  Each  man  pursued  his 
own  interest,  selfish  or  generous,  and  the  industrial 
order  grew.  We  can  now  see,  from  the  height  of  our 
century,  that  there  was  a  plan,  but  it  was  not  discovered 
at  the  dawn  of  time.  Even  yet  no  human  being  com- 
prehends the  system  in  all  its  details. 

But  while  industrial  development  has  thus  proceeded 

11  j  i  111        ^his  growth 

naturally  and  spontaneously,  we  must  not  overlook  the  is  in  Human 
fact,  as  some  are  prone  to  do,  that  this  is  a  human  de- 
velopment. The  evolution  of  a  planetary  system  from 
fire  mist,  of  a  tree  from  a  seed,  of  a  bird  from  the  egg, 
has  many  points  of  similarity  with  that  of  society.  But 
there  are  marked  differences  and  contrasts,  just  because 
man  is  something  more  than  earthy  ball  or  bird  or  tree. 
Into  the  process  of  industrial  development  man  himself 
enters  with  all  his  inherited  and  acquired  powers  of  in- 
telligence, taste,  conscience,  religion,  will.  The  savage 
may  be  able  to  plan  some  simple  work,  like  the  making 
of  an  arrow-head,  a  stratagem  for  trapping  deer,  or  a 
ruse  of  jungle  warfare ;  but  the  civilized  man  invents  a 
locomotive,  a  steamship,  a  trunk  railway,  an  interna- 


104 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Intelligence  a 
fact.r: 


Individualists 
and  socialists 


tional  trade  union.  The  activity  of  shaping  intelligence 
becomes  even  a  more  important  factor.  A  state  may 
project  a  scheme  of  forestry  whose  best  results  will  not 
be  realized  for  a  century.  It  is  characteristic  of  men 
that 

We  look  before  and  after, 

And  pine  for  what  is  not. 

Enlarged,  multiplied,  refined  desires  quicken  ingenuity 
and  give  motive  to  industry.  The  air  is  rife  with  schemes 
of  betterment,  many  of  which,  like  precocious  May  blos- 
soms, will  perish  frost-nipped  and  wind-shaken.  It  is  a 
severe  law  of  evolution  that  millions  of  germs  must  die 
that  the  species,  the  type,  the  race,  the  persistent  truth, 
the  victorious  idea,  may  live  and  flourish.  With  in- 
crease of  intelligence  force  may  be  economized  and  the 
ratio  of  wasteful  failures  be  reduced.  The  higher  forms 
of  life  are  produced  and  maintained  at  less  cost  to 
parents  than  is  true  of  lower  forms  of  life. 

Some  writers  and  thinkers  dwell  too  exclusively  upon 
one  or  other  of  the  aspects  of  truth,  and  thus  we  have 
two  extremes  of  speculation.  The  individualists  empha- 
size the  truth  that  personality  is  the  chief  end  of  social 
action  and  that  a  man  must  not  hang  with  parasitic 
weakness  upon  his  neighbor.  The  socialist  tends  to 
emphasize  the  truth  that  we  are  members  of  a  com- 
munity. Optimism  and  pessimism,  as  temperaments, 
are  connected  with  these  theories  of  development  in  a 
very  odd  way  :  the  socialist  is  optimistic  when  he  is 
revealing  the  glories  of  the  state  of  the  future  Bellamy 
paradise,  and  pessimistic  when  he  harrows  our  souls 
with  the  miseries  and  cruelties  of  our  "capitalistic 
system"  ;  the  individualist  is  optimistic  in  praise  of 
"this  best  possible  world,"  especially  if  he  has  grown 
rich  in  it,  and  he  cannot  use  too  black  a  paint  in  setting 


The  First  Factor  of  Industrial  Reform.         105 

forth  the  dangers  of  governmental  regulation  of  busi- 
ness. With  this  singular  and  remarkable  exception,  he 
thoroughly  believes  in  governmental  help  and  paternal 
care  if  he  is  asking  for  a  valuable  franchise  or  a  special 
tariff  rate  for  which  he  is  quite  willing  to  pay  a  "reason- 
able consideration, ' '  not  to  the  dear  people  but  to  their 
authorized  representatives  and  robbers.  Aristotle  long 
ago  recommended  the  golden  mean  as  nearest  th«  M«u»rkm. 
truth,  and  George  Eliot  professed  a  good  creed  when 
she  declared  herself  to  be  neither  optimist  nor  pessimist, 
but  just  a  meliorist.  Our  limits  oblige  us  to  give  scant 
and  inadequate  treatment  to  the  natural  harmonies  of 
our  economic  system,  since  we  are  in  search  of  the  more 
artificial  and  positive  agencies  of  human  satisfaction  and 
improvement. 

Our  present  business  is  with  modes  of  amelioration, 
the  correction  of  abuses,  the  improvement  of  methods,  wrong*. 
No  instructed  person  questions,  even  in  his  most  san- 
guine hours,  that  there  is  need  of  improvement. 
"Something  is  wrong,"  is  a  phrase  on  all  our  lips, 
even  when  we  are  bewildered  in  fixing  the  responsible 
author  of  the  wrong  or  in  pointing  out  the  way  of 
escape.  Sympathy  clouds  imagination  with  the  gloom 
of  human  sorrow.  Those  who  live  constantly  among 
the  very  poor  often  come  to  feel  that  life  has  nothing 
but  misery  and  wrong.  A  vast  literature  of  fiction,  his- 
tory, social  analysis,  and  statistics  has  made  us  familiar 
with  the  phenomena  of  wretched  poverty,  economic  in- 
equality, tragic  contrasts.  An  abundance  of  cruel  and 
bitter  poverty  can  always  be  found  in  cities  and  even  in 
some  rural  districts.  The  satirical  story  of  "Ginx's  Baby" 
could  be  written  anywhere.  Ginx  was  a  man  with  small  "  CUut>i  u»b>r-' 
income  and  large  family,  two  facts  which  seem  to  have 
•lective  affinity  for  each  other.  He  "looked  around  \\\^ 


io6 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


"Lord 
Munnibagge." 


Tragedies. 


nest  and  saw  many  open  mouths  about  him.  His  chil- 
dren were  not  chameleons ;  yet  they  were  already  forced 
to  be  content  with  a  proportion  of  air  for  food ;  and  even 
the  air  was  bad.  They  were  pallid  and  pinched.  How 
they  were  clad  will  ever  be  a  mystery,  save  to  the  poor 
woman  who  strung  the  limp  rags  together,  and  to  Him 
who  watched  the  noble  patience  and  sacrifice  of  a  daily 
heroism."  It  is  true  that  "  Lord  Munnibagge,  a  great 
authority  in  economic  matters,  .  .  .  had  never  heard 
of  a  case  of  a  baby  starving.  There  was  no  such  wide- 
spread distress  as  was  represented.  People  were  always 
making  exaggerated  statements  about  the  condition  of 
the  poor.  He  did  not  credit  them."  But  then  Lord 
Munnibagge  had  turned  the  wrong  end  of  his  telescope 
to  his  eye  and  the  moon  seemed  to  him  only  a  small 
and  distant  asteroid.  And  so  "a  right  honorable 
gentleman  extinguished  the  subject  in  his  own  little 
brain  with  his  big  hat  ;  but  everywhere  else  the  sparks 
are  still  aglow." 

Those  who  are  not  blind  or  deaf  at  heart  can  easily 
find,  if  they  will,  tragedies  far  more  terrible  than  those 
over  which  they  stir  jaded  and  blasZ  spirits  at  the 
theater.  Women  who  spend  an  income  on  poodles 
might  have  pets  enough  if  they  spent  a  little  more  time 
and  affection  on  human  beings  made  in  the  divine  image. 
There  are  the  toiling  mothers  who  work  for  a  pittance 
far  into  the  night,  faint,  weary,  despairing.  Twenty- 
nine  cents  a  dozen  for  sewing  shirts  and  overalls  !  That 
means  slow  death  or  vice.  Hearts  break  under  that 
sign  "plain  sewing."  Laborers  without  skill  earn  in 
irregular  ways  ten  dollars  a  week  and  spend  one  fourth 
of  this  for  rent  alone.  When  sickness  comes,  as  it  is 
sure  to  do,  there  is  no  credit,  and  beggary  is  only  a 
week  off.  Few  people  starve  to  death  outright  ;  but  in 


TTie  First  Factor  of  Industrial  Reform.         107 

every  hard  winter  our  physicians  and  charity  visitors 
report  suicides  and  death  from  starvation  diseases.  Men 
try  to  break  into  prisons  to  escape  cold  and  hunger. 
Prison  fare  is  better  than  that  of  multitudes  of  working 
people  and  it  is  more  sure. 

Every  year  there  are  armies  of  willing  men  out  of  em-  The    , 

J    J  °  unemployed. 

ployment.  The  word  "unemployed"  is  an  indefinite 
term  which  covers  several  classes  of  those  who  are  out 
of  work.  But  among  them  are  found,  especially  in 
years  of  financial  depression,  a  great  troop  of  honest 
men.  The  very  inventions  which  are  the  marks  and 
means  of  social  progress  turn  into  the  cold  street  many 
men  who  are  too  old  to  learn  to  use  the  new  machinery. 
Progress  moves  forward  in  its  triumphant  chariot  and 
crushes  its  own  ministers  under  its  pitiless  wheels. 
Witness  the  effect  of  the  introduction  of  the  type-setting 
machines,  which  have  reduced  the  price  of  our  daily 
papers  but  which  have  brought  to  many  a  respectable 
home  of  veteran  compositors  desolation  and  despair. 
The  period  of  transition  to  better  things  is  full  of 
horrors.  The  cost  of  general  progress  is  too  often  borne 
by  a  part  of  society.  Is  it  not  strange  and  pitiful  that 
men  with  strong  arms  and  stout  hearts  should  go 
hungry,  cold,  and  ragged,  driven  to  suicide  by  the  cries 
of  hungry  children,  while  wheat  is  a  drug  in  the  market 
and  looms  are  idle  ?  Is  there  no  "physic  for  this  grief 
in  all  the  earth  and  heavens,  too"?  Among  all  our 
great  "captains  of  industry"  is  there  not  organizing 
ability  enough  to  make  a  more  economical  distribution 
(A  the  industrial  army?  Is  it  altogether  strange  that 
men  who  suffer  much  from  causes  over  which  they  have 
no  control  should  investigate  and  question  that  gigantic 
system  which  looms  above  them  and  is  ?r>  unmerciful  ns 
well  as  mysterious  ? 


io8  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

Mr.  E.  L.  Godkin  has  said  with  wisdom  : 

In  examining  the  ills  of  our  lot,  the  first  question  we  have  to 
ask  is,  Are  they  remediable  ?  Complaints  unaccompanied  with 
remedies  or  suggestions  of  remedy,  are,  we  all  acknowledge, 
among  the  most  useless  forms  of  human  activity.  Continual 
discussion  of  wrongs  or  afflictions  which  cannot  be  removed 
is  generally  held  to  indicate  weakness  of  character.  .  .  . 
If  I  am  to  speak  strongly  I  should  say  that  the  sowing  of 
discontent  among  the  masses,  among  men  in  a  democratic 
country  in  our  day,  without  specifying  the  evil  and  laying  your 
finger  on  the  culprit,  is  very  distinctively  anti-social  work. 

But  there  is  a  related  truth  ;  he  who  sees  the  evils  of 
society  is  morally  bound  to  seek  constitutional  and 
specific  remedies,  and  not  give  out  the  impression  to 
toiling  and  suffering  multitudes  that  their  way  is  blocked 
and  that  hope  is  unreasonable.  This  drives  men  to 
desperation,  and  it,  also,  is  distinctively  anti-social. 
There  is  "no  escape  from  death  and  taxes."  But  decay 
may  be  postponed  by  suitable  hygienic,  dietetic,  and 
sanitary  measures  ;  many  diseases  are  preventable  ;  and 
even  taxes  may  be  more  equitably  assessed  and  honestly 
applied.  The  sphere  of  voluntary  action  is  limited  but 
it  is  large  and  important. 

All  that  is  achieved  must  be  the  result  of  personal  en- 
terprise and  patient  toil.  Human  nature  is  the  primary 
vTJ^aUimdo!"  consideration.  Man  cannot  be  blest  in  spite  of  himself. 
There  are  no  social  changes  for  the  better  which  go  for- 
ward independent  of  individual  action.  If  a  nation  lifts 
a  million  foot-pounds  that  weight  is  the  sum  of  many 
lifts.  Modern  sociology  has  not  discovered  any  royal 
highroad  to  competency  which  the  author  of  the 
Hebrew  Proverbs  overlooked.  The  sluggard's  garden 
is  still  full  of  weeds  and  thistles.  The  borrower  is  still 
slave  of  the  lender.  Mr.  Spurgeon's  John  Ploughman 
sums  up  homely  wisdom  in  the  jingle  : 


The  First  Factor  of  Industrial  Reform.         109 

Once  let  every  man  say  Try, 
Very  few  on  straw  would  lie, 
Very  few  of  want  would  die  ; 
Pans  would  all  have  fish  to  fry  ; 
Pigs  would  fill  the  poor  man's  sty  ; 
Want  would  cease,  and  need  would  fly  ; 
Wives  and  children  cease  to  cry  ; 
Poor  rates  would  not  swell  so  high  ; 
Things  wouldn't  go  so  much  awry — 
You'd  be  glad,  and  so  would  I. 

"Poor  Richard's  Almanac"  needs  to  be  corrected  up 
to  date  for  its  tables,  but  the  maxims  of  industry,  thrift, 
and  honesty  represent  one  side  of  truth  which  will  never 
be  obsolete.  There  are  only  a  few  methods  of  acquisi- 
tion, as  industry,  frugality,  economy  on  the  one  hand, 
and  theft,  fraud,  robbery,  and  beggary  on  the  other. 
This  applies  to  thieves  of  all  grades,  rich  and  poor. 
There  is  no  substitute  for  hard  work.  But  he  who 
mixes  thought  with  brute  power  serves  himself  and 
society  better  than  does  one  who  brings  to  his  task  the 
primitive  forces  in  which  oxen,  horses,  mules,  donkeys, 
iron,  and  steam  surpass  stupid  and  awkward  human 
giants.  Man  must  set  his  hands  to  work  for  his  wits  as 
foremen,  and  must  guide  his  fingers  with  intelligence. 
A  nation  composed  of  men  who  like  wheelbarrows  bet- 
ter than  engines  can  never  become  rich. 

The  blacksmith  who  spends  his  evenings  learning  me- 
chanical drawing,  the  tensile  strength  of  iron  and  steel, 
the  history  of  inventions  as  disclosed  in  patent  office 
reports,  is  ever  preparing  himself  to  rise,  and  he  is  alto 
contributing  a  larger  share  to  social  wealth.  Misfortune 
and  accident  sometimes  lead  to  misery.  Not  all  th« 
causes  of  poverty  lie  within  the  range  of  individual  will 
and  character  or  can  be  removed  without  the  coopera- 
tion of  the  community.  But  every  man  can  go  a  certain 


no 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Problems  of 
population. 


J.  S.  Mill's 
view. 


distance  on  the  path  of  self-education  and  self-reliance. 
If  the  sense  of  the  power  and  responsibility  of  the 
individual  decays,  if  men  generally  grow  into  the  habit 
of  looking  to  others  or  to  the  government  for  the  initia- 
tive, the  strength  of  character  and  productive  force  must 
diminish,  and  with  these  personal  happiness.  Multiply- 
ing zeros  will  not  solve  the  labor  problem.  A  nation  of 
dwarfs  is  not  a  great  people. 

Economic  progress  is  impossible  so  long  as  people 
think  that  children  are  "sent."  They  are  "brought  " 
into  existence  by  a  conscious  and  responsible  act  of 
rational  beings.  There  is  very  general  agreement 
among  classic  economists  that  no  social  readjustment 
can  improve  the  condition  of  wage-earners  so  long  as 
ten  men  are  scrambling  for  one  position.  In  India, 
where  girls  marry  at  the  age  of  twelve,  and  where 
the  land  swarms  with  a  superabundant  population,  over 
12,000,000  persons  died  within  a  few  years,  of  starvation 
and  of  famine  epidemics.  Under  such  conditions  it  is 
not  altogether  strange  that  infanticide  should  be  re- 
garded as  moral  and  religious.  There  is  a  limit  to  the 
earth's  surface,  a  limit  to  the  productive  power  of  an 
acre  of  land,  a  limit  to  the  ability  and  willingness  of  men 
to  move  to  free  land.  John  S.  Mill  did  not  sufficiently 
make  account  of  other  elements  of  the  causes  of  poverty, 
but  he  represents  a  respectable  school  of  economists  in 
saying  : 

Only  when,  in  addition  to  just  institutions,  the  increase  of 
mankind  shall  be  under  the  deliberate  guidance  of  judicious 
foresight,  can  the  conquests  made  from  the  powers  of  nature 
by  the  intellect  and  energy  of  scientific  discoverers  become  the 
common  property  of  the  species,  and  the  means  of  improving 
and  elevating  the  universal  lot.  .  .  .  Unhappily,  sentimental- 
ity rather  than  common  sense  usually  presides  over  the  discus- 
sion of  these  subjects  ;  and  while  there  is  a  growing  sensitive- 


The  First  Factor  of  Industrial  Reform.         ill 

ness  to  the  hardships  of  the  poor,  and  a  ready  disposition 
to  admit  their  claims  upon  the  good  offices  of  other  people, 
there  is  all  but  universal  unwillingness  to  face  the  real  difficulty 
of  their  position,  or  advert  at  all  to  the  conditions  which  nature 
has  made  indispensable  to  the  improvement  of  their  physical 
lot.  Discussions  on  the  conditions  of  the  laborers,  lamentations 
over  its  wretchedness,  denunciations  of  all  who  are  supposed  to  Misplaced  pity. 
be  indifferent  to  it,  projects  of  one  kind  or  another  for  improv- 
ing it,  were  in  no  country  and  in  no  time  of  the  world  so  rife  as 
in  the  present  generation  ;  but  there  is  a  tacit  agreement  to  ig- 
nore totally  the  law  of  wages,  or  to  dismiss  it  in  a  parenthesis, 
with  such  terms  as  ' '  hard-hearted  Malthusianisrn  ";  as  if  it  were 
not  a  thousand  times  more  hard-hearted  to  tell  human  beings 
that  they  may,  than  that  they  may  not,  call  into  existence 
swarms  of  creatures  who  are  sure  to  be  miserable,  and  most 
likely  to  be  depraved  ;  and  forgetting  that  the  conduct  which  it 
is  reckoned  so  cruel  to  disapprove  is  a  degrading  slavery  to  a 
brute  instinct  in  one  of  the  persons  concerned,  and  most  com- 
monly in  the  other  helpless  submission  to  a  revolting  abuse 
of  power.  Poverty,  like  most  social  evils,  exists  because  men 
follow  their  brute  instincts  without  due  consideration.  But 
society  is  possible  precisely  because  man  is  not  necessarily 
a  brute.  Civilization  in  every  one  of  its  aspects  is  a  struggle 
against  the  animal  instincts. 

We  read  at  intervals  that  the  doctrine  of  Malthus  has 
been  discredited  by  science.     In  the  form  in  which  Mai-  Practical 

acceptance  of 

thus  himself  left  his  teaching  it  did  require  modification,  the  doctrine. 
Criticism  has  corrected  the  formula  but  not  denied  the 
essential  truth  of  the  doctrine  that  animal  instincts  must 
be  brought  under  rational  control.  Civilized  peoples 
in  their  more  intelligent  ranks  have  accepted  the  law 
and  reduced  it  to  practice.  Among  all  cultured  societies 
the  age  of  marriage  has  risen.  Trades  unions  recognize 
the  truth  of  Malthus' s  law  of  population  when  they 
restrict  the  number  of  competing  apprentices  or  in  other 
ways  seek  to  prevent  immigrants  and  others  from  inter- 
fering with  the  victories  won  in  strikes.  These  changes 
have  been  accompanied  by  increasing  comforts,  a  lower 


112 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Moral 
restraint*. 


Personal 
character 


infant  mortality,  and  a  larger,  happier  social  life  for 
women.  Immorality  has  also  accompanied  this  tendency 
to  smaller  families,  but  it  cannot  be  said  that  society  has 
so  many  hopelessly  brutal,  desperate,  cruel,  and  be- 
sotted members  as  in  the  early  decades  of  the  century. 
And  it  is  precisely  where  self-control  and  prudence  are 
unknown  that  vice  and  crime  reign  supreme.  These 
facts  prove  that  the  population  problem,  serious  and 
perplexing  as  it  is,  should  not  be  regarded  as  insoluble. 
It  is  true  that  those  who  cause  themselves  and  society 
most  suffering  from  excessive  size  of  families  are  the  last 
to  adopt  the  ' '  moral  restraints  ' '  advised  by  Malthus. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  many  of  these  low  families 
are  precisely  those  which  lose  most  from  excessive  mor- 
tality, especially  among  infants,  and  from  confinement 
in  prisons,  penal  colonies,  and  asylums  for  idiots. 

Character  is  the  fundamental  condition  of  economic 
betterment.  It  would  be  more  accurate  to  say  that 
a  human  nature  adapted  to  the  conditions  of  the  best 
life  is  the  essential  element.  For  we  are  too  apt  to  use 
the  word  character  as  a  mere  synonym  of  an  amiable 
disposition.  But  we  must  include  more  in  the  definition 
if  we  are  to  retain  the  word.  Intelligence  and  strength 
are  duties.  This  world  has  no  place,  at  least  of  happi- 
ness and  respect,  for  the  weak.  All  climates,  all  mar- 
kets, all  professions  weed  out  the  unfit.  The  only  favor 
that  society,  mighty  as  it  is,  can  show  to  feebles  is  to  let 
them  die  out  with  as  little  pain  as  possible.  An  ignorant 
man,  a  savage  who  has  lost  his  way  in  modern  civiliza- 
tion, fights  like  a  blind  man  with  keen  antagonists 
armed  with  sharp  weapons  and  obliged  to  be  pitiless.  A 
man  who  has  no  skill  and  energy  has  no  place  in  a  com- 
petitive world.  It  is  reported  that  out  of  six  thousand 
applicants  for  employment  at  the  Cooper  Union  Free 


The  First  Factor  of  Industrial  Reform.         113 

Labor  Bureau  only  eight  persons  proved  to  belong 
to  trades  unions.  This  illustrates  the  law  that  skill  and 
cooperation  are  necessary  to  make  men  able  to  stand 
alone.  Among  the  elements  of  character  required  by 
the  modern  conditions  of  existence  is  the  desire  to  enjoy  Desire  to 
a  variety  of  goods.  A  negro  plantation  hand,  debased  e 
by  slavery,  makes  an  inefficient,  unreliable,  lazy,  fac- 
tory hand  if  the  earnings  of  two  days  in  the  week 
are  sufficient  to  buy  all  he  wants.  A  man  who  is  con- 
tent with  corn,  bacon,  and  a  one-roomed  cabin  has  no 
place  in  the  modern  industrial  system,  which  runs  by 
steam  and  requires  every  employee  to  keep  up  with 
machinery  six  days  in  the  week  and  ten  hours  in  the 
day.  A  civilized  man  wants  many  things  and  is  willing 
to  work  hard  to  get  them. 

The  favored  classes  owe  the  first  duty.     Successful 
people,   especially  the  heirs   of  unearned  wealth,   and  social  duty 

r .  ...  of  wealth, 

parasites   who   live   upon    the   fruits   or    common   toil, 

are  wont  to  declaim  against  the  vices  of  the  poor.  The 
vices  of  the  rich  look  so  beautiful  in  satin  robes  and 
evening  dress  that  they  charm  like  virtues.  Vulgar 
variety  theaters  are  often  very  objectionable  and  coarse, 
but  then  many  costly  operas  on  which  wealth  is  lavished 
sufficient  to  build  many  model  tenements  are  frequently 
mere  nasty  crime  set  to  fine  music,  and  the  only  re- 
deeming feature  of  the  libretto  is  that  it  is  in  a  foreign 
tongue.  It  would  be  amusing  if  the  thing  were  not  so 
exasperating  and  dangerous,  to  hear  a  fine  gentleman 
declaim  against  the  extravagance  of  the  poor  in  periods 
made  eloquent  by  expensive  champagne.  There  is  an  Hvpocrity  in 
immense  amount  of  cant  about  the  wastefulness  of  the 
"lower  classes"  on  the  part  of  those  who,  if  they  were 
paid  according  to  the  value  of  their  social  service,  would 
be  clothed  in  rags  and  fed  on  hominy  like  other  paupers. 


H4  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

No  reasonable  person  will  complain  that  property  has 
been  accumulated  in  vast  and  convenient  masses  so  long 
as  the  process  of  acquisition  has  been  honest  and  the 
investments  are  consistent  with  social  welfare.  A  rich 
and  industrious  manufacturer  is,  so  far  as  he  is  an 
investor  and  manager,  a  mere  trustee  of  social  capital. 
Nor  does  a  reasonable  and  instructed  person  object 
to  very  unusual  expenditures  for  personal  use  so  long  as 
those  expenditures  give  leisure  for  higher  forms  of 
service,  and  bring  into  the  common  life  finer  natures 
enriched  by  pictures,  travel,  and  wide  intellectual  rela- 
Luxury.  tions.  It  is  the  meaningless,  barbaric,  sensual,  de- 

praving, enervating,  immoral,  debasing,  voluptuous, 
ostentatious  use  of  wealth  against  which  all  should  pro- 
test in  every  effective  way. 

Such  mad  extravagance  as  flaunts  itself  at  many 
watering  places  and  on  public  occasions  diverts  capital 
from  the  production  of  goods,  which  are  within  the  reach 
of  all  industrious  men  ;  consumes  the  products  of  ex- 
hausting toil  without  any  rational  return  in  beauty  or 
knowledge  or  culture;  makes  ordinary  houses,  furniture, 
and  clothes  relatively  more  expensive,  and  tends  to  in- 
crease the  number  and  intensity  of  crises  and  depres- 
sions. It  arouses  bitter  feelings  among  all  citizens,  and 
even  among  the  rich  themselves.  The  only  enjoyment 
possible  to  derive  from  ostentation  comes  from  the  sight 
of  the  envy  of  neighbors,  and  that  pleasure  is  inhuman. 
Luxury  works  by  the  law  of  suggestion  and  imitation 
upon  all  men  and  awakens  an  ignoble  discontent  which 
embitters  all  existence  and  brings  many  into  debt  and 
dishonesty.  In  colleges  this  meaningless  display  sets 
up  a  materialistic  standard  of  success,  lowers  the  tone 
of  scholarship,  discourages  the  poor  student,  and  drags 
ideal  aims  into  the  dust.  It  intensifies  the  mad  race 


The  First  Factor  of  Industrial  Reform.         115 

for  riches,  the  worship  of  mere  wealth,  the  temptations 
of  fraud,  oppression,  and  corruption.  Let  us  bring  two 
sober  and  competent  witnesses.  Says  Mr.  Andrew  D. 
White : 

It  must  be  confessed  that  during  recent  years  there  have 
been  some  conduct  of  rich  men  and  several  careers  of  rich 
men's  sons  fit  to  breed  nihilism  and  anarchy.  Many  wild  doc- 
trines among  the  poor  may  be  traced  back  to  senseless  osten- 
tation among  the  rich.  Glorification  in  our  press  of  this  Evil  example, 
woman's  "tiara"  and  that  woman's  wardrobe  ;  of  this  young 
millionaire's  genius  in  driving  a  four-in-hand,  and  that  young 
millionaire's  talent  in  cooking  terrapin;  of  some  Croesus  buying 
or  begging  his  way  into  the  society  of  London  or  Paris  ;  of 
social  or  financial  infamy  condoned  by  foreign  matrimonial  alli- 
ances ;  what  wonder  that  men  out  of  work  in  tenement  houses, 
or  struggling  with  past-due  mortgages  on  the  prairies,  should 
be  led  by  such  examples  to  look  at  all  property  as  robbery  ? 

And  Mr.  Goldwin  Smith  : 

Few  things  in  social  history  are  more  unlovely  or  more  likely 
to  provoke  righteous  indignation  among  the  people  than  the 
matrimonial  alliances  of  the  upstart  and  sometimes  ill-gotten 
wealth  of  New  York  with  the  needy  aristocracy  of  Europe. 
What  must  an  American  workman  feel  when  he  sees  the  prod- 
ucts of  American  labor  to  the  extent  of  scores  of  millions  sent 
across  the  Atlantic  to  buy  nobility  for  the  daughter  of  a  million- 
aire !  The  thing  is  enhanced  by  the  extravagant  splendor  of 
the  nuptials.  Nor  are  these  marriages  merely  offenses  against 
feeling  and  taste.  They  are  an  avowal  that  American  wealth  is 
disloyal  to  the  social  principles  of  the  republic. 

There  is  an  impression  in  many  quarters  that  exist- 
ence on  less  than  ten  thousand  a  year  is  unworthy  of  a 
human  being.  Any  man  who  has  a  small  income  is  re- 
garded with  ill-concealed  contempt.  It  is  true  that 
many  very  worthy,  gracious,  and  useful  citizens  spend 
a  good  deal  more  than  that  on  themselves  every  year. 
But  quite  as  valuable  citizens  have  served  the  world 
at  less  cost.  Socrates,  Milton,  Shakespeare,  Dante,  and 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


others  of  similar  rank  did  not  cost  as  much  as  many  a 
supercilious  dandy  has  consumed  in  a  few  wine  parties. 

One  of  the  most  exasperating  elements  of  the  case 
is  that  these  flippant  and  shallow  spendthrifts  dress 
themselves  in  the  feathers  of  economic  virtue  and  strut 
about  as  benefactors  of  the  land.  They  claim  the 
exalted  merit  of  ' '  circulating  money ' '  and  ' '  increasing 
employment  of  the  poor."  It  is  true  the  economists, 
from  Adam  Smith  down,  have  exposed  the  miserable 
fallacy  of  this  sophism  of  vanity  which  would  present  a 
vice  for  the  worship  of  mankind  ;  but  then  the  weak 
head  which  is  turned  by  selfishness  could  not  compre- 
hend the  economic  doctrine  of  consumption  if  it  were 
printed  in  capital  letters.  The  only  correction  of  such  a 
narrow  spirit  will  probably  be  found  in  the  taxing  power 
of  an  educated  democracy.  But  educated  people  can  do 
something  to  suppress  the  sensual  vanity  of  the  luxuri- 
ous by  ceasing  to  pay  it  homage  and  begging  invitations 
to  its  parties. 

The  best  contribution  any  man  can  make  to  the 
economic  welfare  of  society  is  himself,  as  a  socialized 
citizen  who  finds  his  habitual  satisfactions  in  ways  which 
are,  on  the  whole,  favorable  to  the  well-being  of  all.  By 
a  quotation  we  may  bring  the  witness  of  two  eminent 
men  to  bear  on  our  theme.  Mr.  Ruskin  wrote  : 

The  only  final  check  must  be  radical  purification  of  national 
character.  But  in  this  more  than  in  anything,  Plato's  words 
.  .  .  are  true,  that  neither  drugs,  nor  charms,  nor  burnings, 
will  touch  a  deep-lying  political  sore  any  more  than  a  deep 
bodily  one  ;  but  only  right  and  utter  change  of  constitution ; 
and  that  they  do  but  lose  their  labor  who  think  that  by  any 
tricks  of  law  they  can  get  the  better  of  those  mischiefs  of  com- 
merce, and  see  not  that  they  hew  at  a  hydra. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

WHAT   GOOD   EMPLOYERS   ARE    DOING. 

The  leaders  of  industry,  if  industry  ever  is  to  be  led,  are  vir- 
tually the  captains  of  the  world.  If  there  be  no  nobleness 
in  them  there  will  never  be  an  aristocracy. 

— CarlyU. 

IT  is  almost  an  unpardonable  sin  for  a  "mere  theo- 
rist" to  give  advice  to  practical  business  men  on  any 

place  of  a 

matter  touching  the  conduct  of  their  business.  If  the  theorist, 
town  were  in  danger  of  conflagration  in  consequence  of 
the  methods  of  the  manager  he  would  still  be  inclined  to 
regard  all  that  went  on  in  his  factory  as  a  private  affair. 
He  hates  advice  as  the  worst  sort  of  vice.  It  is  pro- 
posed in  this  chapter  to  eschew  and  avoid  this  fault. 
We  shall  give  no  counsels  of  perfection  for  other  people 
to  follow  at  their  own  expense.  We  shall  confine 
our  discussion  to  matters  of  fact  which  ought  to  be  gen- 
erally known,  and  to  the  judgments  of  successful  busi- 
ness men  who  have  treated  their  employees  as  men  and 
not  merely  as  "hands." 

This  course  is  legitimate,  and  it  is  the  only  one  which 
an  essayist,  teacher,  preacher,  or  editor  can  properly 
take.  Facts  must  talk.  If  books  do  not  directly 
reach  a  certain  class  of  thick-skinned  employers  by  the 
direct  route,  ideas  may  find  the  weak  joints  of  their  har- 
ness by  the  way  of  public  opinion.  Most  capitalists  care  JJ^)fe  of 
far  more  for  a  good  name  than  they  do  for  money,  and 
American  business  men  are  not  misers.  They  love 
power  and  praise,  senatorial  seats  and  reputation  for 

"7 


u8 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


All  sorts 
of  men. 


philanthropy,  far  more  than  mere  possession  of  millions. 
Indeed,  the  books  of  assessors  show  that  they  are  very 
generally  exceedingly  modest  in  the  publication  of  their 
personal  property  ;  and  if  we  did  not  have  Jenkins's  ac- 
count of  weddings,  banquets,  balls,  and  opera  parties, 
yachts,  butlers,  and  Keeley  Cure  colonies,  we  should 
sometimes  be  inclined  to  pity  them  for  their  small 
success  in  fighting  fortune.  But  even  those  who  evade 
the  assessors  are  not  incapable  of  wincing  under  the 
shafts  of  literary  criticism,  especially  when  it  works  with 
universal  suffrage  as  ally.  There  are  few  men  of  this 
powerful  and  intelligent  class  who  are  not  open  to 
appeals  to  the  most  generous  motives  which  do  honor  to 
our  kind.  If  we  are  to  gain  heroes  we  must  praise  hero- 
ism when  it  appears.  Generosity  is  contagious.  Phi- 
lanthropy is  a  bank  on  which  the  community  can  draw 
very  heavy  checks  —  if  they  are  not  too  heavy.  When 
philanthropy  gives  reasonable  hopes  of  paying  dividends 
it  walks  in  silver  slippers. 

Managers  of  industrial  establishments  have  control 
over  the  actions  and  surroundings  of  their  employees. 
The  wage-earner  has  an  apparent  freedom  of  contract, 
and  can  offer  his  services  to  any  employer.  But,  as 
Mr.  Spencer  says,  "This  liberty  amounts  in  practice  to 
little  more  than  ability  to  exchange  one  slavery  for 
another  ;  since,  fit  only  for  his  particular  occupation,  he 
has  rarely  an  opportunity  of  doing  anything  more  than 
decide  in  what  mill  he  will  pass  the  greater  part  of  hib 
dreary  days.  The  coercion  of  circumstances  often  bears 
ces>  more  hardly  on  him  than  coercion  of  a  master  does 
on  one  in  bondage."  Whether  a  man  breathe  pure  air 
or  expand  his  lungs  in  an  atmosphere  laden  with  poison- 
ous exhalations  and  fine  dust;  whether  he  work  in  a 
crowded  room  or  in  a  spacious  and  lofty  shop  ;  whether 


Power  of 
employers. 


Coercion  of 


What  Good  Employers  are  Doing.  119 

he  have  a  clean  place  to  wash  his  hands  and  face,  and  a 
tidy  room  for  his  lunch,  or  must  feed  like  swine  by  the 
gutter  or  greasy  bench,  assailed  by  disagreeable  odors  ; 
whether  he  look  out  from  his  toils  through  clear  glass  to  skyand 

landscape. 

see  bright  sunshine  and  flowers,  or  through  obscured 
panes  upon  a  wilderness  of  dirty  and  rusty  fragments  of 
machinery  ;  whether  he  be  compelled  to  endure  the 
villainous  profanity  and  obscenity  of  an  overseer  from 
whom  he  takes  his  orders  under  penalty  of  discharge,  or 
can  receive  instructions  from  a  gentleman  ;  whether  he 
be  treated  as  a  beast  of  burden  or  as  a  creature  compact 
of  nerves  and  pride,  who  can  suffer  and  remember  ; 
whether  he  be  made  to  feel  every  minute  that  he  is 
a  suspected  thief  who  must  be  watched  or  a  man  of 
honor  who  can  be  trusted — all  this  depends  somewhat 
on  himself  but  much  more  on  the  character  of  the 
employer.  Under  the  wage  system  the  initiative  must 
always  be  taken  by  the  man  whose  employing  and 
discharging  power  is  a  whip  with  a  long  lash.  He  who 
seeks  and  gains  place  and  power  can  never  escape 
an  unusual  share  of  responsibility. 

It  is  often  asserted,  in  spite  of  the  discussions  of  a 

,     ,,  .  ,  .         ,  r  ,  ,.        Responsibility 

half  century,  that  the  entire  duty  of  an  employer  is  dis-  of  employers. 
charged  when  he  has  paid  the  rate  of  wages  for  which 
he  has  contracted,  and  that  the  rate  of  wages  is  fixed  by 
the  labor  market  absolutely  apart  from  the  will  of  the 
employer.  The  ' '  labor  question  ' '  according  to  this 
philosophy  is  entirely  simple  :  pay  the  market  rate  of 
wages  and  there  is  an  end.  Any  suggestion  of  further 
social  or  moral  responsibility  is  sometimes  met  with 
fierce  invective  and  charges  of  ' '  sentimentalism ' '  and 
impertinence.  It  is  not  strange  that  business  men,  sen- 
sitive to  criticism  of  honor,  should  resent  any  hint  of 
injustice.  Nevertheless  society  cannot  release  the  most 


120 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Employers 
dependent  on 
society. 


Witness  of  a 
money-maker. 


powerful  class  of  modern  times  from  their  duty.  As 
soon  as  capitalists  are  assailed  by  superior  numbers  they 
ask  the  community  to  turn  out  with  guns  and  taxes 
to  drive  away  the  strikers  and  rioters,  and  they  have  a 
right  to  such  protection.  Society  cannot  afford  to  let 
rich  men  hire  their  hordes  of  detectives  at  personal  cost, 
as  did  the  feudal  lords  of  half-barbarian  ages  and  as 
some  employing  corporations  have  done  in  recent  years. 
Modern  society  must  control  all  armed  bodies  by  its  own 
general  laws.  Therefore  society  has  a  right  to  inquire, 
in  case  of  social  disturbance  and  call  for  protection,  who 
is  responsible  for  the  cost  of  armed  defense.  And  as 
the  wage-worker  must  respond  to  the  legal  inquiry 
so  must  the  employer.  Where  public  opinion  is  passing 
judgment  outside  of  courts  it  must  be  equally  impartial. 
A  successful  and  humane  capitalist,  famous  for  his  shar- 
ing profits  with  wage-earners  in  his  employ,  says  : 

We  are  told  that  the  strike  and  the  election  of  labor  candi- 
dates must  be  met.  Met  by  what  ?  By  force  and  carnage  or 
by  reason  and  justice  ?  Can  a  man  lay  claim  to  morality,  much 
less  to  Christian  humility,  who  answers  his  brother's  despair 
and  his  sister's  degradation  with  the  brutal  words  of  Cain  ? 
The  noblesse  oblige  of  the  French,  the  Golden  Rule  of  all 
religions  .  .  .  declare  that  we  are  not  for  ourselves  alone, 
we  are  our  brother's  keeper. 

It  is  not  out  of  a  preacher's  study  or  an  editorial 
sanctum,  but  from  business  experience  that  he  writes : 

No  man  can  justly  take  to  himself  all  that  selfishness  and 
power  and  cunning  can  bring  within  his  control.  Where  igno- 
rance and  injustice  and  distress  are  the  deepest,  there  is  his 
sternest  responsibility.  (Mr.  N.  O.  Nelson). 

He  believes  that  the  wage  system  is  itself  responsible 
for  piling  up  a  surplus  so  rapidly,  without  increasing 
the  purchasing  power  of  the  wage-earners,  that  like 
a  flooded  water-wheel  it  stops  the  entire  productive 


What  Good  Employers  are  Doing.  121 

machinery.  Crisis,  depression,  starvation,  ill-will,  cruel 
injustice,  he  thinks,  are  inseparable  from  the  traditional 
wage  system. 

Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie  voices  the  common  impression 
of  capitalists  and   economists,    and   probably  of  labor   Cooperative 

production  far 

leaders  themselves,  when  he  declares  that  the  ideal  of  distant, 
cooperative  production  is  very  far  off.  It  seems  certain 
that  for  many  years,  perhaps  for  generations,  the  chief 
control  of  business  must  be  mainly  in  the  hands  of  a  com- 
paratively few  men  of  great  organizing  ability.  Most  men 
who  attempt  to  direct  the  immense  systems  of  business 
which  characterize  modern  life  have  failed.  Only  those 
who  have  extraordinary  endowments  have  succeeded. 
This  very  fact  makes  it  socially  imperative  that  those 
who  direct  the  management  of  business  during  this  age 
of  transition  from  the  wage  system  to  the  cooperative 
future  should  have  in  high  degree  that  sense  of  obliga- 
tion which  alone  makes  power  gracious  and  secure. 
Happily  employers  have  changed  their  character  dur- 

.    °  Improved 

ing   this   century   in   the   typical    and   most  advanced  character  of 

employers. 

industrial  countries.  The  earlier  English  managers  had 
risen  from  the  ranks  of  coarse  and  narrow  laborers  in 
the  days  before  free  schools  had  softened  the  manners  of 
the  populace.  To  a  great  extent  this  has  been  true 
in  this  country  among  the  "self-made  men  who  are 
proud  of  their  makers."  But  employers  tend  to  become 
what  society  admires  and  praises  ;  they  take  color  from 
their  environment,  and  yield  to  the  terrors  of  criticism 
or  the  charms  of  flattery.  When  society  ceases  to  wor- 
ship bare  wealth,  crude  lucre,  and  shows  its  respect  for 
higher  human  qualities,  it  will  have  still  higher,  gentler, 
more  humane  capitalists.  Social  selection  is  already  at 
work.  More  sons  of  rich  men  graduate  at  college,  and 
the  finer,  nobler  life  of  college  and  technological  school 


122 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Difficulty  of 

personal 

relations. 


Forces  of 
selection. 


is  transforming  the  factory  and   the  wholesale    house. 

It  is  true  that  the  day  has  gone  by  for  those  close  per- 
sonal relations  between  ' '  master  and  man  ' '  which 
obtained  before  this  age  of  huge  factories,  great  imper- 
sonal corporations,  and  foreign  syndicates.  The  capital- 
ist employer  is  to  the  wage-earner  a  myth,  a  soulless 
thing,  a  vague  and  perhaps  terrible  and  remote  demi- 
god, who  has  no  concern  in  the  business  but  to  draw 
dividends,  even  if  they  bring  the  blood  of  laborers  with 
them.  ' '  Corporations  have  no  souls ' '  and  classes  in 
society  have  no  backs  to  smite.  And  yet  individual 
stockholders,  bondholders,  and  especially  directors  are 
not  so  far  removed  as  at  first  sight  appears.  The  presi- 
dent of  a  railroad  has  no  trouble  in  securing  a  knowl- 
edge of  every  defective  rail,  of  every  broken  lamp, 
of  every  ounce  of  oil  used  by  trainmen.  The  hierarchy 
of  responsibility  by  which  vast  enterprises  are  controlled 
from  a  central  office  is  one  of  the  amazing  phenomena 
of  our  century.  It  is  not  impossible  to  use  a  detective 
service  to  surprise  an  impolite  conductor  or  a  sleepy 
switchman.  The  great  corporation  can  set  its  spies 
on  the  most  minute  actions  of  its  servants.  And  the 
encouraging  fact  is  that  the  members  of  this  service  are 
of  a  far  higher  quality  than  they  were  some  years  ago, 
better  in  dress,  speech,  and  manners. 

Now  the  men  who  can  thus  control  the  very  thoughts 
of  their  employees  are  able  to  affect  their  fortunes  and 
happiness  by  personal  influence  through  this  same  com- 
plicated but  omnipresent  machinery.  The  most  suc- 
cessful managers  of  great  affairs  are  coming  to  recognize 
this  responsibility.  The  time  will  come  when  it  will  be 
impossible  for  a  corporation  which  is  brutally  indifferent 
to  the  physical  and  intellectual  well-being  of  its  men 
to  secure  helpers.  Employers  compete  with  each  other 


What  Good  Employers  are  Doing.  123 

for  workmen  and  they  compete  with  each  other  for 
public  approval.  The  consumers  have  the  balance  of 
power,  and  when  that  fails  the  democracy  has  universal 
suffrage  in  reserve  to  bring  to  terms  men  who  will  not 
heed  a  hint  of  humanity. 

The  power  of  employers  to  increase  wages  is  limited 
but  real.  The  conditions  of  economic  life  give  the  aiuUnin/mum 
master  power  to  "oppress  the  hireling  in  his  wages." 
Economists  agree  that  there  is  a  margin  between  the 
maximum  and  minimum  which  a  business  permits  to  be 
paid  on  wages  account.  Of  course  if  the  rate  rises  too 
high  the  manager  is  bankrupt.  But  the  margin  is  quite 
wide  enough  for  some  employers  to  show  how  mean 
or  how  generous  they  wish  to  be.  Industrial  fairness  is 
not  absolutely  secured  by  automatic  social  machinery. 
Some  employers  have  a  reputation  for  grinding  the 
faces  of  the  poor,  while  others  deserve  a  good  name 
as  doing  their  best.  So  that  even  in  this  restricted 
field,  where  the  upper  and  nether  millstones  seem  to 
press  so  hard,  there  is  a  space  in  which  the  disposition 
and  character  of  the  captain  of  industry  can  show  them- 
selves. The  tendency  is  for  the  better  workmen  to 
gravitate  toward  the  best  employers,  those  who  strive  to 
reach  the  highest  possible  levels  of  wage  reward.  The 
process  of  social  selection  tends  to  eliminate  the  inferior 
employer  by  driving  his  inferior  goods  out  of  the 
market.  And  where  a  business  fdls  into  the  hands 
of  men  who  are  willing  to  "sweat"  the  wage-earners, 
democracy  at  last  finds  a  way  to  correct  the  harshness 
of  greed  by  legislative  measures.  Thus  the  social  spirit 
is  a  factor  when  one  would  least  expect  it,  when  it  seems 
that  the  terms  of  destiny  are  hard  as  fate. 

One  whom  the  writer  of  these  pages  reveres  as  a  son  A  fi,UI  trlbute 
and  pupil,  and  mentions  here  with  grateful  filial  memo- 


124 


Social  Spirit  in  America. 


illustrations  of 

the  social  spirit 

in  a  factory. 


ries,  was  wont  to  boast  in  a  modest  way  that  all  those 
who  worked  in  his  employ  for  wages  after  a  few  years 
owned  their  own  homes.  He  paid  the  highest  rate 
of  wages  and  then  lent  them  his  ability  as  a  business 
man  in  showing  them  how  to  invest  their  savings.  And 
his  example  was  such  that  they  were  won  to  a  nobler 
use  of  their  powers  and  means. 

In  a  little  book  accessible  in  cheap  form  to  all,  Mr. 
D.  Pidgeon  has  told  about  '  '  Old  World  Questions  and 
New  World  Answers."  He  fills  many  pages  with 

.      .  ..... 

descriptions  of  the  effects  of  intelligence,  refinement, 
democratic  and  Christian  feeling  in  the  practical  man- 
agement of  New  England  factories.  A  few  illustrations 
will  show  how  slovenliness  and  cruelty  of  some  employ- 
ers is  rebuked  by  the  taste  and  humanity  and  by  the 
enlightened  self-interest  of  a  superior  order  of  managers. 

The  New  England  manufacturer  has  no  notion  of  spending 
the  greater  part  of  his  day  in  a  dirty,  ill-furnished,  ill-ventilated 
room,  or,  indeed,  of  asking  his  bookkeeper  to  do  so.  On  the 
contrary,  he  houses  his  staff  in  large,  handsome  rooms,  fitted 
with  many  clever  devices  for  facilitating  work,  from  among 
nhich  the  telephone  is  never  absent.  Most  of  his  clerks  are 
girls,  who  also  conduct  the  correspondence,  using  the  type- 
writer almost  universally  for  this  purpose.  The  offices  are 
kept  scrupulously  neat  and  clean,  and  their  occupants  are  dis- 
tinguished by  an  air  of  briskness  very  different  to  that  which 
characterizes  their  duller  brethren  of  the  desk  in  England.  The 
workshops,  again,  are  so  comfortable,  and  the  operatives 
so  like  the  masters  in  ideas  and  manners,  that  an  Englishman 
is  altogether,  but  agreeably,  surprised  on  his  first  introduction 
to  a  Yankee  factory. 

He  describes  the  workshops  of  a  watch  factory  : 

These  might  more  appropriately  be  called  saloons,  so  sightly 
are  they  and  so  beautifully  fitted  with  every  appliance  for  com- 
fort and  convenience.  Entering  at  the  operatives'  door  we 
came,  first,  upon  the  dressing-room,  where  each  workman  has 


What  Good  Employers  are  Doing,  125 

his  ticketed  hooks  for  coat  and  hat,  his  own  ticketed  towel, 
while  the  common  lavatory  is  equal  to  that  of  an  English  club. 
The  girls'  toilet  room  is  quite  dainty  in  its  arrangements,  a 
separate  supply  of  water,  for  instance,  and  separate  vessels  for 
hand  and  face-washing  being  provided.  The  most  exact  neat- 
ness and  scrupulous  cleanliness  are  assured,  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  special  attendant  to  this  usually  neglected  depart- 
ment. .  .  .  The  first  requisites  of  a  watch  factory  are 
abundance  of  light,  neatness,  and  cleanliness.  No  man  can  do 
his  best  when  physically  uncomfortable,  whether  from  excess 
of  heat  or  cold,  poor  light,  or,  above  all,  bad  air.  It  is  now 
universally  acknowledged,  at  least  in  the  Naugatuck  Valley, 
that  everything  which  contributes  to  the  comfort  and  mental 
benefit  of  the  workman  pays  good  returns  on  its  first  cost. 
Hence  the  walls  of  the  train-room  are  all  windows,  the  ceilings 
are  high,  the  warming  and  ventilation  are  perfect.  There  is  no 
smoke,  dust,  or  bad  air,  and  the  operatives  are  comfortably 
seated  at  their  respective  benches. 

And  here  is  a  pretty  picture  of  personal  relations  : 

A  few  moments  before  six  o'clock  we  stationed  ourselves  at 

Picture  at  the 
the  factory  door  to  watch  the  issuing  operatives.     Of  these  the   factory  door. 

greater  number  are  girls,  but,  girl  or  man,  almost  every  one 
had  a  smile  and  a  nod  for  the  manager,  and  a  smile  and 
nod  which  were  charming  because  of  their  eloquence  as  to  the 
relations  between  employer  and  employed.  Of  one  Mr.  L. 
would  say,  "  He  is  our  librarian  ";  of  another,  "  He  teaches  in 
my  Sunday-school  ";  of  this  girl,  "She  is  the  best  singer  in  our 
church  choir";  of  that,  "She  is  my  wife's  right  hand  at  a 
bee."  If  there  is  military  discipline  inside  the  works,  there  is 
both  friendship  and  equality  between  employer  and  employee 
without  the  walls. 

With  such  delightful  examples  the  theorist  has  no 
need  to  point  the  moral  or  preach  a  sermon  ;  he  has 
only  to  hold  up  a  mirror.     Passing  through  beautiful 
gardens  of  flowers  one  comes  to  the  library  of  the  Yankee 
factory  on  whose  walls  the  practical  Yankee,  a  com-  ldeall"m- 
pound  of  shrewdness  and  ideality,   has  caused  to  be 
hung  this  legend,  the  words  of  Horace  Mann  : 


126 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Sentiment  with 
money  value. 


Help  the 
Inspector*. 


Remember  that  the  learning  of  the  few  is  despotism,  the 
learning  of  the  multitude  is  liberty,  and  that  intelligent  and 
principled  liberty  is  fame,  wisdom,  and  power.  The  well- 
educated  operative  does  more  work,  does  it  better,  earns  more 
money,  commands  more  confidence,  rises  faster  and  to  higher 
posts  in  his  employment  than  the  uneducated  workman  can. 

This  is  sentiment,  but  sentiment  that  can  be  coined 
into  money,  sentiment  which  raises  the  occupation  of  a 
business  manager  from  the  despicable  position  of  a 
slave-driver  to  the  proud  elevation  of  the  spiritual  leader 
of  his  fellow-workmen.  Such  employers  are  friends  of 
social  peace,  guardians  of  justice,  successors  of  the 
apostles  of  piety,  wisdom,  and  humanity. 

Sir  E.  Chadwick  furnishes  a  valuable  illustration  of 
the  power  of  a  wise  and  moral  employer. 

The  East  India  Company  instituted  an  inquiry  into  the  causes 
of  sickness  and  break-down  among  their,  employees  :  they 
proved  that  through  influences  which  they  had  brought  to  bear 
and  which  had  been  suggested  by  the  collection  of  facts  of  pre- 
vention, they  had  secured  from  their  workingmen  in  London 
returns  as  favorable  to  health  as  had  been  obtained  from  men 
living  in  rural  districts.  The  success  was  due  to  the  circum- 
stance that  the  company  had  learned  how  to  make  the  health. 
Selecting  their  workingmen  with  care  at  first,  they  made  pro- 
vision against  sickness.  They  supplied  medical  attendance  free 
of  expense,  so  that  the  moment  a  man  began  to  fail  he  could 
be  certified  from  labor  ;  and  as  in  course  of  time  each  man  by 
increasing  age  lost  power  to  carry  out  the  heavier  work,  except 
at  serious  cost  to  his  health  and  strength,  they  reduced  his 
labor,  and  allowed  it  to  become  suitable,  stage  by  stage,  to  his 
actual  condition  for  labor. 

Employers  can  cooperate  with  factory  inspectors  in 
the  effort  to  exclude  tender  children  from  the  exhaust- 
ing labors  fit  only  for  adults,  in  the  protection  of 
workers  from  accident  and  disease.  It  is  their  plain 
duty  not  to  resist  reasonable  factory  legislation,  as  they 


What  Good  Employers  are  Doing.  127 

have  too  often  done,  but  to  assist  in  it,  since  it  is  simply 
a  movement  to  lift  the  plane  of  competition  and  provide 
for  the  future  a  healthier  and  stronger  race.  It  is  a  most 
unfortunate  obstacle  to  social  peace  when  capitalists 
secretly  or  openly  combine  to  obstruct  and  annoy  in- 
spectors instead  of  fostering  reasonable  legislation  and 
helping  to  carry  it  into  effect.  It  should  be  understood 
by  this  time  that  factory  legislation  is  the  chief  means  by 
which  honorable  and  humane  employers  are  enabled  to 
protect  their  employees  without  being  ruined  by  heart- 
less and  unscrupulous  competitors. 

One  of  the  great  causes  of  social  friction  is  an  unsuit- 
able form  of  payment,  and  this  is  a  frequent  source  of  ing  wage°s.pa' 
anger  apart  from  the  amount  of  the  wages.  This  is  a 
matter  which  is  largely  under  the  control  of  the  mana- 
gers. Abuses  of  power  have  been  so  flagrant  that  legis- 
lation had  to  be  invoked  to  correct  them.  In  mines, 
lumber  camps,  saw-mills,  and  other  industries  employers 
have  insisted  upon  paying  wages  in  orders  on  their  own 
stores.  No  doubt  with  honest  and  liberal  employers  this 
arrangement  has  been  the  most  economical,  and  fre- 
quently it  has  been  a  means  of  great  convenience  for 
the  isolated  workmen.  But  in  the  hands  of  unscrupu- 
lous employers  the  system  gives  power  to  rob  the  work- 
ingmen  of  all  beyond  a  mere  existence.  They  are 
compelled  to  pay  monopoly  prices.  It  is  a  pity  that 
the  baser  employers  have  thus  perverted  their  power 
and  even  fought  the  legal  remedies  which  have  been 
passed  in  spite  of  their  protests. 

The  object  of  selecting  a  method  of  remuneration  is 
on  the  one  side  to  secure  the  best  quality  and  highest 
amount  of  service,  and  on  the  other  to  promote  the 
health  and  economic  welfare  of  the  wage-earner.  Into 
the  technical  details  of  time  wage,  piece  wage,  and 


128 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Consulting 
workmen. 


Trials  of 

patienoe. 


other  current  schemes  we  cannot  enter  in  this  place. 
They  are  largely  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  special 
forms  of  industry  and  no  general  rule  can  be  laid  down 
for  all.  But  there  is  one  principle  of  great  practical  im- 
portance and  of  universal  application  :  that  method 
should  be  adopted  which  appeals  to  the  better  nature 
and  higher  motives  of  the  workmen.  All  charity  and 
sentiment  excluded,  this  principle  is  declared  by  saga- 
cious managers,  peers  of  the  strongest,  to  be  practical 
and  imperative.  There  is  a  mean  and  antiquated  notion 
among  some  employers  that  it  is  beneath  them  to  con- 
sult wage-earners  in  making  arrangements,  and  that 
it  weakens  discipline.  Employers  of  the  better  class 
have  already  proved  that  conferences  with  *vorkmen, 
and  a  high  degree  of  confidence  shown  th^m,  have  a 
reward  in  good  understanding  and  avoidance  of  out- 
bursts of  unreasoning  because  uninstructed  men. 

Be  noble  !  and  the  nobleness  that  lies 
In  other  men,  sleeping  but  never  dead, 
Will  rise  in  majesty  to  meet  thy  own. 

It  is  pitiful  to  see  a  real  master  of  the  massive  engine 
of  business  become  distrustful  of  his  workmen,  cynical 
and  suspicious  because  they  have  misunderstood  him 
and  returned  his  kind  advances  with  contempt.  It 
requires  a  lofty  and  superior  spirit  to  persist  in  doing 
kindness  after  repulses  and  insinuations  of  cowardice 
and  selfishness.  And  yet  this  is  just  the  task  laid 
on  those  who  repeatedly  remind  the  world  that  they  be- 
long to  the  ' '  higher  classes. ' '  An  able  and  humane 
superintendent  opened  a  resting  and  reading-room  for 
his  employees.  There  had  been  dissatisfaction  with 
wages  and  the  men  charged  his  kind  act  to  fear.  It 
made  him  angry  and  he  turned  them  in  wrath  out  into 
the  cold.  The  milk  of  human  kindness  had  turned  acid 


What  Good  Employers  are  Doing.  129 

in  the  thunder  storm.  Why  could  he  not  trust  the 
might  of  mercy  just  a  little  further  ?  Had  they  not  some 
slight  cause  for  their  suspicion  of  sinister  motive  ?  Had 
they  always  met  such  friendliness  and  good  faith  that 
confidence  must  be  taken  as  a  matter  of  course  ?  Surely 
large  endowments  and  superior  social  position  should 
call  for  corresponding  display  of  patience  and  gener- 
osity, and,  if  need  be,  pity  with  those  whom  a  hard  and 
bitter  lot  has  made  to  feel  that  they  are  aliens.  Fortu- 
nately other  men  have  persisted  in  kindness  until  it 
has  won  its  reward.  Perhaps  generosity  would  more 
frequently  succeed  if  it  were  not  tainted  with  a  lordly 
feudal  spirit  which  is  becoming  more  and  more  anti- 
quated and  dangerous  in  a  land  of  political  equality. 

Many  improvements  in  the  lot  of  our  wage-earners 
can  be  secured  without  any  new  societies,  clubs,  or  creating  public 
guilds.  Have  we  not  already  churches,  pulpits,  clubs, 
parties,  homes,  newspapers,  campaigns,  and  a  hundred 
other  vehicles  of  expression  ?  If  each  one  of  us  could 
discover  one  particular  act  which  any  particular  em- 
ployer might  reasonably  be  expected  to  perform  and 
tell  him  so,  very  sweetly,  a  score  or  more  of  us,  he 
would  be  likely  to  do  it  if  he  could,  and  he  would  be 
ashamed  to  put  himself  in  the  wrong  by  getting  furi- 
ously angry. 

The  fears  and  anxieties  of  wage-earners  are  due  to  real 
and  not  imaginary  causes.     Millions  of  our  fellowmen  provident 
live  close  to  the  margin  of  their  income,  and  any  slight  n 
change  in  their  plans  must  lead  to  misery.     There  is  a 
strict  limit  not  only  to  the  possibility  but  to  the  wisdom 
of  "saving."     There  are  men  who  "save"  money  at 
the  cost  of  vitality,  of  the  education  of  their  children, 
and  the  decent  comforts  of  home.    There  are  millions  of 
honest,   industrious,   thrifty  people  who  are  daily  ex 


130  The  Social  Spirit  m  America. 

posed  to  the  danger  of  discharge,  to  sickness,  due 
to  their  employment  and  surroundings,  to  accident,  and 
to  sudden  death.  They  are  affrighted  and  worried 
by  the  thought  that  they  may  leave  wife  and  children 
without  income.  It  irks  them  sore  that  their  chil- 
dren should  be  in  danger  of  beggary,  or  be  unable  to 
fit  themselves  for  a  trade.  The  process  of  providing 
for  these  emergencies  by  the  savings  bank  method  is 
very  slow  and  uncertain.  In  cities  unskilled  laborers 
cannot  buy  costly  land  for  homes.  Ordinary  life  insur- 
ance requires  premiums  which  are  simply  impracticable 
for  men  with  low  wages  and  family  expenses.  Some  of 
the  ' '  industrial ' '  companies  make  it  easier  by  collecting 
the  premiums  weekly  ;  but  this  is  a  costly  method  and  is 
often  abused  in  practice,  especially  in  connection  with 
the  insurance  of  young  children. 

It  is  just  here  that  employers,   especially  great  and 
Friendly  permanent  corporations,  have  their  opportunity.  Scores 

leadership.  ,  ,.  ,  ...  .  , 

of  establishments  are  providing  various  plans  of  collect- 
ing insurance  funds  against  times  of  sickness,  accident, 
and  death.  Some  of  these  corporations  add  a  subsidy 
by  way  of  aid  and  encouragement.  Here  is  a  great  firm 
which  provides  a  bookkeeper  to  care  for  the  accounts  of 
the  society  of  employees  who  contribute  a  small  sum 
each  week  and  govern  the  entire  plan  through  their 
own  officers.  There  is  a  company  which  collects  and 
manages  the  funds  by  its  salaried  accountants.  Experi- 
ments are  being  tried  in  various  parts  of  the  civilized 
world,  and  some  of  the  most  instructive  and  hopeful  of 
these  are  American. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  quote,  not  a  theorist  and  preacher, 
Testimony  of  a  but  a  railroad  president,   Mr.    O.   D.   Ashley,   on  the 
social  obligation  of  capitalists  in  relation  to  employees 
and  the  public. 


What  Good  Employers  are  Doing.  131 

If  there  is  social  unrest  in  the  civilized  world,  a  fact  which 
will  hardly  be  disputed,  we  are  bound,  not  only  as  Christians 
but  as  parts  of  the  human  brotherhood,  to  give  careful  exami- 
nation to  all  plans  which  contemplate  man's  improvement  and 
elevation  in  the  social  scale,  and  in  the  United  States,  espe- 
cially, where  the  liberty  of  the  individual  is  a  marked  feature 
of  our  system  of  government,  we  are  bound  to  study  plans 
which  may  render  that  personal  liberty  more  precious  and  en- 
during. 

His  little  book,  "Railways  and  Their  Employees," 
contains  descriptions  of  various  methods  by  which  man- 
agers of  large  industries  are  assisting  their  employees  in 
providing  against  the  times  of  need. 

The  principle  which  underlies  the  German  govern- 
ment system  of  insurance  for  workingmen  is  that 
each  business  of  production  should  support  the 
laborers,  and  that  support  includes  provision  for  the 
children  and  the  aged,  the  invalid  and  the  injured 
during  non-producing  periods.  Some  laudable 
experiments  have  been  tried  by  private  firms  to  carry 
out  this  principle  by  providing  accident,  sick  and 
out-of-work  funds  for  employees.  But  there  are 
inherent  difficulties  in  the  way  of  ordinary  business 
houses  or  factories.  The  duty  of  carrying  obliga- 
tions for  the  future  may  imperil  credit.  The  bank- 
ruptcy of  the  firm  may  scatter  the  funds  accumulated. 
Changes  from  place  to  place  or  changes  in  the  man- 
agement interfere  with  a  continuous  policy. 

In  the  case  of  vast  corporations,  like  railroads  and 
iron  works,  some  of  these  difficulties  are  diminished 
or  disappear,  and  the  outlook  for  their  schemes  is 
more  hopeful.  But  we  must  look  to  Germany  for 
the  most  complete  and  reliable  plan  of  legalizing  and 
supervising  this  method  of  insurance  and  fixing  the 
rates  on  uniform  principles  of  equity  and  economic 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Meani  of 

culture. 


Elevation  of 
«oul. 


science.  There  are,  indeed,  schemes  of  employers 
to  insure  themselves  against  loss  by  claims  of  work- 
men injured  by  machinery;  but  this  protects  the 
wrong  party  and  leaves  the  injustice  without  remedy. 
The  true  principle  is  to  provide  legally  for  indemnity 
in  all  cases  of  accident,  without  suits  to  enforce  "em- 
ployers' liability."  The  expense  of  insurance  thus 
becomes  a  part  of  the  costs  of  production.  Only 
when  constituted  authority  controls  the  entire  plan  can 
it  be  placed  on  a  substantial  and  enduring  foundation. 

Employers,  as  influential  members  of  the  community, 
are  able  to  serve  wage-earners  by  promoting  the  educa- 
tional agencies  of  the  city  or  town.  It  is  not  always 
necessary  to  establish  libraries  and  reading-rooms  in 
connection  with  the  factory  or  the  store  ;  but  rich  men 
can  foster  the  means  of  culture  to  which  all  have  access. 
In  these  days,  when  there  is  a  strong  tendency  among 
the  wealthy  and  their  imitators  to  educate  their  own 
children  in  private  schools,  there  are  distinct  signs 
of  indifference  or  even  hostility  toward  the  free  public 
schools.  Yet  these  are  precisely  the  institutions  which 
must  give  character  to  our  people,  as  they  are  the  only 
means  of  education  for  wage-earners.  Rich  men  can 
give  time  and  thought  to  the  management  of  the  com- 
mon schools. 

Grandly  did  Channing,  in  his  noble  lecture  ' '  On  the 
Elevation  of  the  Laboring  Classes, ' '  say  :  "I  know  but 
one  elevation  of  a  human  being,  and  that  is  elevation  of 
soul."  The  improvement  in  physical  and  economical 
conditions  is  nothing  save  a  means  to  this  end  ;  and  em- 
ployers have  the  power  to  contribute  to  this  in  varied 
ways.  Sagacious  and  magnanimous  men,  as  the 
Coopers,  Drexels,  Pratts,  have  set  a  worthy  example. 
Some  of  the  trunk  line  railroads  have  provided  reading- 


What  Good  Employers  are  Doing.  133 

rooms,  baths,  and  even  religious  services  of  the  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  for  the  employees.  The  expenditures  are  justi- 
fied on  the  ground  of  economy  and  humanity. 

The  capitalist,  optimistic  with  success,  tells  the  wage-  Increased  ^^ 
earner  that  the  only  way  to  gain  more  is  to  earn  more.   in*  p°wer. 
This  is  partly  true.     But  so  far  as  it  is  true  it  shows  how 
intelligence  and  riches,  the  gifts  of  the  "higher  classes," 
can   improve  the   income   of  the  poor,    by   providing 
instruction  in  those  arts  by  which  wealth  is  increased 
and  finer  goods  are  produced. 

Railroad  companies  and  other  corporations  have  en- 
couraged their  employees  to  buy  stock  and  thus  become, 
in  a  sense,  partners  in  the  enterprise.  Aside  from  the 
insecurity  of  such  stock  and  the  extreme  fluctuations 
in  their  value,  the  possession  of  shares  gives  little  real 
power  over  the  management.  The  method  has  a  value, 
but  only  within  narrow  limits.  It  is  not  the  ideal  of  the 
working  people. 

Students  of  social  history  have  long  since  corrected 

*  Profit-sharing. 

the  notion  that  a  system  of  industry  to  which  we  are  ac- 
customed is  a  part  of  eternal  order  and  is  not  subject  to 
change.  In  other  times  the  laborer  was  a  slave,  bound 
to  render  service  to  a  particular  person  according  to  his 
will  on  penalty  of  death  for  refusal,  and  subject  to  sale 
like  any  chattel.  The  slave  received  his  living  because 
he  was  useless  unless  he  was  fed.  But  he  could  not,  as 
a  rule,  accumulate  wealth,  and  he  was  liable  to  be 
separated  from  his  family.  No  very  high  development 
of  character  was  possible.  Under  that  system,  which 
is  called  serfdom,  the  laborer  belonged  to  the  territory 
rather  than  to  a  person  ;  and  while  he  could  not  move 
about  as  he  chose,  and  owed  certain  duties  to  his 
lord,  he  also  found  security,  maintenance,  and  social 
consideration  in  his  position.  But  slavery  and  serfdom 


134 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


The  wage 
system. 


Us  defects. 


have  passed  away  from  civilized  lands,  and  a  third  form 
of  regulating  labor,  which  also  lived  by  the  side  of 
the  others,  has  come  to  be  very  general  in  industrial 
communities. 

This  is  called  the  capitalistic  wage  system.  Its  dis- 
tinguishing characteristic  is  that  it  is  based  on  a  free 
contract  which  can  be  enforced  at  law,  but  may  be 
terminated  by  consent.  This  system  admits  of  a  higher 
degree  of  personal  freedom  ;  it  permits  a  man  to  go 
where  he  thinks  he  can  do  best  for  himself ;  it  opens  to 
the  workman  some  hope  of  becoming  a  manager  of 
business  ;  and  there  is  a  general  correspondence  be- 
tween effort  and  reward,  since  the  more  efficient  work- 
man usually  receives  higher  pay  than  one  who  lacks 
capacity  and  skill.  But  there  are  disadvantages  in  this 
system,  so  serious  that  it  is  under  a  steady  fire  of 
criticism  from  many  standpoints.  As  capital  becomes 
more  concentrated  in  large  masses,  and  as  division 
of  labor  is  carried  further,  the  workman  is  more  sep- 
arated from  the  employer  ;  he  no  longer  owns  and  con- 
trols the  instruments  used  for  production  ;  he  is  exposed 
to  the  risks  of  business  without  having  any  voice  in 
its  management ;  he  is  under  the  power  of  the  managers 
of  capital  to  such  a  degree  that  freedom  of  contract 
is  frequently  a  mockery,  since  the  places  open  to  him 
are  all  under  the  sway  of  similar  principles  of  govern- 
ment. The  wage-earner  has  no  direct  and  tangible 
interest  in  the  product,  save  as  it  affects  his  rate  of 
wages  ;  and  the  interests  of  his  employer  frequently 
seem  in  antagonism  to  his  own.  The  disputes  relating 
to  the  rate  of  wages,  the  length  of  hours,  the  regula- 
tions of  the  shop,  and  the  competition  with  outsiders 
have  been  so  bitter  as  to  endanger  and  sometimes 
destroy  the  social  peace.  The  history  of  mankind 


What  Good  Employers  are  Doing.  135 

shows  that  a  change  of  some  kind  is  to  be  expected, 
and  that  a  method  of  employment  which  brings  with  it 
so  many  losses  and  perils  cannot  be  regarded  as  ab- 
solutely final. 

It  is  not  strange  that  both  philanthropists  and  busi- 
ness men  should  cast  about  for  some  mode  of  ameliora- 
ting the  situation  and  promoting  a  more  satisfactory 
arrangement.  Among  the  proposed  experiments  is 
profit-sharing.  This  means,  as  here  used,  "An  agree- 
ment spontaneously  entered  into  by  which  the  workman  profit-sharing. 
or  employee  receives  a  share  of  profits  determined  in  ad- 
vance." This  method  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  many  schemes  of  bonus,  piece  wage,  pensions, 
benefit  funds,  and  other  forms  of  remuneration  and 
stimulus  which  sometimes  go  under  this  name.  Strictly 
speaking,  the  word  profit-sharing  should  be  reserved  for 
that  form  of  industrial  remuneration  in  which  a  fixed 
part  of  the  profits  shall  be  divided  among  the  employees 
according  to  their  wages.  Certain  advantages  are 
claimed  for  this  system  :  that  it  makes  the  workmen 
more  industrious,  careful  of  waste  and  wear,  less  likely 
to  strike  and  thereby  lessen  their  chances  at  a  share  of 
profits.  It  is  claimed  that  workmen  would  not  be  so 
likely  to  disturb  social  peace  if  they  had  hope  of  a  share 
in  the  profits  of  business. 

Objections  have  been  urged  from  various  points  of 
view.  Employers  have  objected  that  wage-earners  would  o^ectioni- 
be  quite  willing  to  share  gains  but  in  bad  years  could 
not  be  reconciled  to  sharing  losses.  The  answer  to  this 
objection  has  been  made  that  the  workmen  in  fact 
do  share  losses  every  year,  since  they  lose  income  every 
day  and  hour  they  are  not  engaged.  It  is  further  urged 
in  reply  that  the  manager  can  create  a  fund  in  good 
years  which  will  provide  for  the  years  of  loss.  Social- 


136 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Conflicting 
opinions. 


Experiment 
must  decide. 


ists  are  inclined  to  ridicule  the  scheme  because  it  de- 
pends on  the  generosity  of  capitalists,  a  trait  of  character 
which  they  are  not  inclined  to  count  a  large  factor.  In 
reply  to  this  objection  it  is  urged  that  the  capitalist  em- 
ployer who  adopts  this  method  would  succeed  so  well 
that  he  would  compel  competitors  to  come  to  his  way  of 
doing,  and  that  the  success  of  the  system  does  not  rest 
entirely  on  philanthropy. 

Economists  are  generally  favorable  to  a  trial  of  the 
scheme.  Some  business  men  are  very  enthusiastic  over 
it,  but  comparatively  few  managers  have  attempted 
it,  and  more  have  abandoned  it  than  have  persisted. 
Where  the  cost  of  superintendence  is  high  and  the  pos- 
sibilities of  waste  of  material  and  time  are  relatively 
great,  with  a  superior  type  of  men  on  both  sides,  a  fair 
degree  of  success  has  been  won. 

Perhaps  the  most  serious  theoretical  objection  is  that 
the  men  may  deserve  a  share  and  fulfill  their  part 
perfectly,  and  yet,  owing  to  the  incompetence  or  misfor- 
tune of  the  manager,  they  may  fail  to  secure  what  they 
deserve.  It  is  claimed  that  workmen  should  not  be  ex- 
posed to  the  danger  of  losing  the  results  of  their  extra 
efforts  on  account  of  defects  in  that  management  in 
which  they  have  no  voice.  Since  wages  are  and  must 
long  remain  the  major  part  of  income,  and  since  a  wage 
contract  can  be  enforced  at  law  while  a  gratuity  can- 
not be  so  enforced,  it  does  not  seem  likely  that  wage- 
earners  will  abandon  their  union  when  it  comes  to  a  real 
conflict  of  interests  between  the  rate  of  wages  and 
the  fluctuating  and  uncertain  share  in  profits.  The  ver- 
dict at  present  must  wait  on  further  experiment.  There 
is  enough  to  recommend  it  as  worthy  of  trial  in  suitable 
conditions. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

• 

ORGANIZATIONS    OF    WAGE-EARNERS. 

THE  wage-earners,  like  all  other  men,  should  have  a 

~,  •  .  i  Common 

universal  and  supreme  ideal.     Character,  in  its  widest  interests  of 

humanity. 

and  highest  sense,  is  the  ripe  fruit  of  all  social  growths. 
The  need  of  knowledge  of  God,  man,  and  nature  is  com- 
mon to  all,  not  peculiar  to  a  class.  The  enjoyment  of 
vigorous  and  robust  health  is  a  good  which  most  persons 
can  appreciate.  And  while  multitudes  of  people  care 
little  for  aesthetic  values,  for  beautiful  sights  and  har- 
mony, all  have  a  latent  faculty  for  art  and  are  defective 
unless  it  is  developed.  But  the  condition  of  securing 
all  the  blessings  of  life  in  any  high  measure  is  the 
possession  of  income.  Economic  welfare  is  the  con- 
dition of  all  other  welfare.  The  primary  ' '  labor  ques- 
tion" is  a  question  of  money.  Wage-earners  are  not 
alone  in  this  situation.  All  men  are  alike  in  depending 
upon  the  acquisition  of  at  least  a  minimum  of  wealth 
for  the  attainment  of  spiritual  satisfaction.  The  ladder 
which  reaches  heaven  rests  on  the  earth.  This  is  not 
"materialism,"  it  is  common  sense.  Those  who  declare 
that  money  is  not  essential  to  noble  life  give  the  lie  to 
their  theory  by  their  conduct.  An  all-wise  Creator 
gives  us  bodies  before  there  is  any  mind  to  speak  of.  the'spfritua?™ 
Paul  himself  affirmed  that  the  natural  comes  before 
the  spiritual  in  the  order  of  time,  although  it  is  not 
first  in  dignity.  A  minister  seldom  accepts  a  call  until 
he  has  an  agreement  about  salary. 

While  there  is  so  much  in  common  there  are  some 

MT 


138 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Trades  unions. 


important  differences.  Modern  machine  industry,  with 
^e  accompanying  concentration  of  capital,  has,  during 
tnjs  century,  produced  a  wage  class  whose  permanent 
interests  are  bound  up  with  a  particular  form  of  income. 
Looking  now  at  industrial  communities  we  see  that 
wage-earners  are  usually  compelled  to  act  together 
as  wage-earners  because  of  the  method  of  industrial 
organization  to  which  we  all  are  subject.  A  relatively 
small  minority  can  rise  to  be  managers  of  industry,  but 
the  ratio  seems  to  grow  smaller  every  year. 

Certain  it  is  that  the  prospect  of  becoming  capitalists  does 
not  act  as  so  powerful  a  motive  on  the  laborers  to-day  as  on 
those  of  a  generation  ago.  The  opportunities  to  save  are  as 
great  or  greater  ;  but  the  amount  which  has  to  be  saved  before 
a  man  can  hope  to  become  his  own  employer  has  increased 
enormously.  (Professor  Hadley.) 

Many  wage-earners  may  be  able  to  lay  aside  some- 
thing in  savings  banks  and  can  purchase  stocks  in  manu- 
facturing and  transporting  corporations.  But  ten  hours 
a  day,  six  days  in  the  week,  the  large  body  of  opera- 
tives are  separated  from  the  controlling  and  directing 
persons  by  distinct  interests  relating  to  the  hours  of 
labor,  the  intensity  of  labor,  and  the  rate  of  payment. 
Naturally  men  desire  to  secure  themselves  against  arbi- 
trary and  unreasonable  regulations  of  their  captains. 
One  means  of  doing  this  is  the  trades  union. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  mention  trades  unions  with- 
out  exciting  feelings  of  hostility  on  the  part  of  those 
identified  with  the  fortunes  of  rent,  interest,  and  profit. 
But  a  calm  and  rational  consideration  of  their  history 
will  temper  this  bitter  hatred  without  committing  us  to 
unqualified  admiration.  The  simple  historical  fact  is 
that  the  development  of  the  factory  system  has  created  a 
class  of  capitalists  and  a  class  of  wage-earners  ;  that  the 


Organizations  of  Wage- Earners.  139 

capitalists  are  already  the  embodiments  of  concentrated 
power  because  of  their  control  of  machinery  and  their 
known  power  to  wait  without  suffering,  while  wage- 
earners  are  urged  by  hunger  and  danger  of  starvation  ; 
and  that  wage-earners  have  constructed  a  semi-military 
organization  to  defend  themselves,  to  meet  the  con- 
centrated power  of  managers,  and  to  secure  more 
favorable  wage  contracts  than  they  could  secure'  as 
individuals. 

From  the  standpoint  of  this  discussion  no  very  strong 
eulogy  of  trades  unions  is  reasonable.  This  book  is 
written  in  the  interests  of  social  peace,  while  trades 

....  Relative 

unions  and  capitalistic  organizations  to  meet  them  are  necessity, 
on  a  kind  of  war  basis.  The  best  word  we  can  say 
for  the  union  is  that  it  is  relatively  justifiable  ;  that  it  is 
indispensable  to  progress,  somewhat  as  the  powder-cart 
is  a  vehicle  of  advance.  We  cannot  give  it  high  praise 
nor  unqualified  rebuke.  It  is  an  effective  weapon  in  an 
apparently  unavoidable  strife.  We  may  think  of  it  just 
as  of  ancient  slavery  and  armies,  ugly  but  necessary 
means  of  climbing  out  of  the  barbarian  pit.  And  yet 
trades  unions  are  the  work  of  the  social  spirit  and  mani- 
festations of  solidarity  of  interests  ;  a  primary  school  for 
a  coming  wider  cooperation.  Just  as  all  affections  must 
take  deep  root  in  the  nursery  of  the  home  before  they 
can  bear  transplanting  and  exposure  in  the  wide  world, 
so  the  semi-militant  cooperation  of  the  trades  union  is 
on  the  way  to  the  parliament  of  man,  the  federation  of 
the  world. 

The  guilds  of  former  centuries  were  organizations 
of  manufacturers  and  of  merchants,  or  of  persons  who 
looked  forward  to  becoming  masters  in  the  small  indus-  The  past  of 

trades  union*. 

tnes  of  their  times.  The  trades  unions  are  of  a  different 
character  and  are  constructed  on  a  different  principle. 


140  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

They  are  composed  of  wage-earners  who  know  that  only 
an  insignificant  part  of  them,  thought  of  as  "  deserters 
from  their  class,"  have  the  least  chance  of  rising  to  the 
ranks  of  regulating  agents.  Since  their  home  and  com- 
pany must  be  with  operatives  they  are  determined 
to  make  their  permanent  place  as  comfortable  as  pos- 
sible. This  class  consciousness  may  seem  very  narrow 
and  selfish,  but  is  much  better  than  dull,  swinish 
apathy. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  century  in  England  and 
Baritth  history.  otker  countries  of  Europe  it  was  a  crime  for  laborers  to 
combine  for  the  purpose  of  resisting  the  demands  of  the 
masters.  It  was  only  after  the  most  bitter  and  pro- 
longed resistance  that  they  fought  their  way  to  self- 
respect  and  conquered  the  respect  of  the  employing 
classes  by  exciting  their  fears.  Adam  Smith  had  said, 
' '  Masters  are  always  and  everywhere  in  a  sort  of  tacit, 
but  constant  and  uniform,  combination  not  to  raise 
the  wages  of  labor  above  their  actual  rate ' ' ;  and  for 
a  long  time  the  employers,  as  political  rulers,  were  able 
to  enforce  their  will  by  the  help  of  force.  But  after  the 
struggle  which  so  much  resembled  war,  the  right  of 
coalition  has  been  recognized  by  all  modern  nations.  At 
first  prohibited,  then  tolerated,  trades  unions  are  now 
legalized,  regulated,  with  definite  rights  and  duties. 
' '  Capital  is  not  absolute  ;  and  it  is  idle  to  compare  the 
position  of  the  capitalist  nowadays  with  his  position 
when  his  workmen  were  slaves  and  the  law-makers  were 
his  creations."  (Theodore  Roosevelt.)  The  conquest 
of  the  laborers  has  been  won  by  their  unions. 

There  is  no  necessary  connection  between  these  asso- 

ReUtlon  of  .     .  .          .,  »••-..« 

unions  to  ciations  and  strikes.      Long  before  there  were  unions 

there  were  strikes  of  the  most  desperate  and  cruel  kind. 
Even  now  among  unorganized  laborers  there  are  striko, 


Organizations  of  Wage-Earners.  141 

lawless  and  bloody  acts,  and  obedience  to  demagogues. 
On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the  strongest  unions  do  not 
strike,  and  all  of  them  tend  to  become  conservative  as 
they  gain  wealth,  funds,  power,  and  reputation.  Per- 
haps the  very  common  prejudice  against  unions  in  this 
country  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  comparatively 
new,  have  had  but  brief  experience,  and  are  composed 
of  a  mixed  multitude  of  city  men  who  have  come  to- 
gether from  all  nationalities.  Perhaps  a  further  reason 
for  the  excesses  and  irregularities  of  American  unions  in 
the  past  has  been  that  our  agricultural  civilization  had 
not  provided  us  a  legal  ideal  and  rule,  such  as  England 
has  formed.  A  new  country,  where  manufactures  are 
just  beginning  to  be  a  prominent  factor,  must  work  out 
suitable  social  regulations  which  will  anticipate  deeds 
of  violence  and  bring  associations  under  the  direction  as 
well  as  protection  of  law.  As  these  temporary  condi- 
tions are  changed  we  may  hope  to  find  the  use  of  strikes 
by  unions  less  frequent  and  characteristic. 

Indeed,  the  function  of  organization  is  to  regulate  ac- 
tion. Men  who  are  accustomed  to  discuss  their  plans, 
to  weigh,  criticise,  and  resolve  after  debate  and  delibera- 
tion, are  much  less  inclined  to  rash  and  precipitate 
conduct  than  the  same  men  would  be  if  they  were  with- 
out the  means  of  comparison  of  views.  The  same 
aggravating  conditions  would  arouse  the  same  resent- 
ments and  reactions  of  feelings  as  now,  but  without 
a  society  for  deliberation  the  outbursts  of  indignation 
would  be  more  frequent  and  more  desperate.  It  is 
true  that  a  strong  union  is  more  likely  to  be  suc- 
cessful than  one  composed  of  raw  recruits,  but  that 
is  because  it  is  more  able  to  find  out  whether  the 
employer  is  able  to  give  better  terms,  and  whether 
success  is  within  reach.  This  knowledge  and  power 


I42 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Methods. 


Legal  status  of 
trades  unions. 


make  a  strike  less  necessary  just  because  it  is  known 
to  be  fairly  certain  of  success. 

One  of  the  labor  leaders  has  said  that  the  object  of 
their  movement  is  to  secure  a  larger  share  of  the  world's 
treasure,  leisure,  and  pleasure.  They,  in  common  with 
all  men,  desire  shorter  hours  of  drudgery,  higher  in- 
come, wider  opportunities,  more  respectful  and  consid- 
erate treatment. 

The  trades  unions  succeed  by  bringing  the  represent- 
atives of  a  trade  into  a  society  which  can  present 
a  united  front,  formulate  demands,  sustain  their  mem- 
bers long  enough  to  endure  a  siege  while  strength 
of  both  sides  is  put  to  the  test,  restrict  the  competition 
of  other  laborers,  influence  legislation  on  matters  of 
interest  to  wage-earners,  and  provide  funds  for  various 
exigencies  of  life.  Illegitimate  methods,  as  violence, 
intimidation,  and  insult,  belong  to  the  campaigns  of  the 
unions  only  in  the  sense  that  mutilating  non-combatants 
and  burning  libraries  belong  to  war. 

Even  war  has  its  rules,  and  these  tend  to  become 
more  humane.  International  strifes  are  likely  to  be 
referred  to  judicial  courts.  And  so  modern  nations, 
recognizing  trades  unions  as  necessary  evils,  or  at  most 
only  relatively  good,  seek  to  restrict  their  militant  oper- 
ations as  much  as  possible  and  to  see  that  the  contest  is 
carried  on  in  the  spirit  of  fair  play.  Trades  unions  have 
always  been  legal  in  this  country  since  the  Revolution. 
Strikes  are  lawful.  Men  can  continue  to  promote  their 
own  interests  so  long  as  they  do  not  seek  the  injury 
of  their  fellowmen  by  threats,  disturbances,  riots,  or  in- 
sult. It  is  ordinarily  lawful  to  do  by  union  what  is 
permitted  the  individual  to  do.  Whether  a  strike  is 
good  policy  is  an  economical  question,  an  affair  of 
bookkeeping.  But  the  hoodlum  cry  of  "scab,"  the 


Organizations  of  Wage-Earners.  143 

bludgeon  of  the  assassin,  the  incendiary  torch,  are  to  be 
judged  on  other  grounds.  In  a  country  where  any  citi- 
zen can  appeal  to  law  and  where  manual  workers  are  the 
majority  of  voters  violence  is  inexcusable,  and  experi- 
ence shows  that  it  will  not  be  tolerated. 

Passing  out  of  the  warlike  atmosphere  of  the  trades 

r     i  £  j  /  -u  •         ^.i  s          Pacific  organ- 

unions,  we  feel  more  confident  of  ascribing  the  creation  izations  for 

,     ,        ,  .       j,  .      .  .  .    ,         .   .         ,  .   ,     .  mutual  benefit. 

of  the  friendly  societies  to  the  social  spirit  which  is  our 
theme.  To  one  who  moves  about  among  the  poor  of  a 
great  city  there  are  few  signs  more  beautiful  and  hopeful 
than  the  various  associations  of  wage-earners  formed  to 
provide  funds  against  times  of  exigency.  On  our  cards 
of  investigators  for  relief  societies  there  is  often  printed 
the  question  :  ' '  Do  you  belong  to  any  club,  lodge, 
or  friendly  society  ?  "  The  number  of  these  societies  is 
legion  and  their  modes  of  work  as  varied  as  the  colors 
in  a  kaleidoscope.  Among  the  foreigners  about  our 
social  settlements  these  associations  constitute  one  of  the 
foremost  factors  making  for  elevation  and  protection. 
They  raise  a  lofty  and  strong  barrier  against  pauperism, 
and  bring  men  and  women  into  relations  of  mutual  help- 
fulness and  friendship. 

The  older  trades  unions  have  generally  tended  to  add 
these  features  to  their  more  belligerent  functions,  and 
history  seems  to  teach  that  this  gives  them  increased 
power.  May  we  not  hope  that  when  the  labor  insurrec- 
tion is  over,  and  labor  has  won  proper  recognition,  that 
the  benefit  factor  will  be  left  as  the  element  of  perma-  factor  in 
nent  interest  and  value  ?  We  have  already  noticed  that 
employers  have  sometimes  taken  the  initiative  in  provi- 
ding income  for  times  of  sickness,  accident,  and  death. 
A  weekly  fee  is  not  severely  felt  by  a  wage-earner, 
where  fifty  dollars  would  be  a  crushing  burden.  Sick- 
ness of  the  bread-winner  is  robbed  of  its  worst  terrors 


144 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America, 


Invention  of 

Insurance. 


Cooperation  of 
others  than 
wage-earners. 


and  made  more  amenable  to  remedy  if  there  is  a  fund  to 
provide  for  immediate  wants.  On  the  average  a  man 
will  be  out  of  employment  from  illness  and  accident 
so  many  days  in  a  year,  the  average  being  different  for 
various  occupations.  This  average  can  be  calculated 
and  a  sum  can  be  made  up  by  cooperation  which  will 
sustain  the  family  until  working  capacity  is  restored. 

The  discovery  of  the  principle  of  distributing  individ- 
ual risks  by  social  action  ranks  with  the  invention  of  the 
steam-engine.  The  association  for  giving  this  principle 
effectiveness  is  at  once  cause  and  consequence  of  the  dis- 
position of  sociability.  Indeed,  the  cultivation  of  the 
friendly  nature  and  the  increase  of  knowledge  and  good 
breeding  are  among  the  most  important  elements. 
Those  who  are  cut  off  from  ' '  society ' '  find  in  these 
clubs  and  lodges  a  society  which  gives  them  pleasure 
and,  in  the  long  run,  refinement  of  manners  and  a 
certain  intellectual  power.  While  the  same  financial 
benefits  may  sometimes  be  obtained  at  even  less  cost 
where  employers  manage  the  business,  the  highest  results 
cannot  thus  be  attained.  Just  as  fast  as  wage-earners 
can  learn  to  gather  and  manage  their  own  funds,  as  they 
do  in  the  friendly  societies,  the  more  rapidly  will  they 
acquire  business  tact,  insight  into  the  nature  of  our  eco- 
nomic world,  and  those  qualities  of  independence,  self- 
reliance,  and  foresight  which  lift  men  in  the  scale  of 
social  rank. 

Every  sincere  lover  of  working  people  must  rejoice  at 
every  sign  of  independence.  This  does  not  mean  isola- 
tion from  the  employing  class.  Any  of  us  can  join  such 
associations  if  we  pay  our  dues.  It  is  a  great  deal  better 
for  the  capitalist  to  knock  at  the  door  of  a  lodge  and  ask 
admission  than  it  is  for  him  to  keep  his  employees  in  a 
state  of  minority  and  dependence  by  methods  of  patron- 


Organizations  of  Wage- Earners.  145 

age.      As  the  wage-earners  become  more  intelligent  and 
self-respecting  they  will  more  and  more  conduct  their 
own   affairs.     Even   their   losses   of   money   will   teach  teaches6"0 
them  wisdom,   and  the  increase  of  mental  and-  moral 
force  will  compensate  for  many  disappointments. 

If  young  capitalists,  with  real  gifts  of  financial  wisdom, 
wish  to  be  of  the  most  benefit,  they  must  give  over  their 
foolish  and  meaningless  class  pretensions  and  become 
members  of  some  of  the  existing  benefit  societies. 
Politicians  are  doing  this  now  "  for  what  there  is  in  it." 
It  is  an  unworked  field  for  genuine  democrats  who 
despise  the  narrowness  of  class  arrogance,  have  a  sincere 
desire  to  be  useful,  and  are  not  itching  for  political  pre- 
ferment. But  an  unselfish  and  earnest  political  purpose 
would  be  promoted  by  membership  in  the  clubs  of 
workingmen.  Merely  personal  ambition,  however,  is 
soon  detected.  Workingmen  have  been  deceived  so 
often  that  they  are  sensitive  and  suspicious,  and  nothing 
short  of  a  serious  and  persistent  devotion  to  their  happi- 
ness can  remove  the  moral  barrier. 

Life  insurance  is  a  much  more  difficult  science  than 
that  which  underlies  the  mutual  benefit  societies.  The  insurance 

,  .  t  ...     .  c    ,  ,  fraternities. 

history  of  hie  insurance  on  some  of  the  assessment  plans 
is  strewn  with  wrecks  and  marked  with  sorrows.  There 
are  certain  fixed  principles  clearly  ascertained  by  the  ex- 
perience of  the  century.  Here  as  elsewhere  the  word 
"  cheap  "  is  likely  to  prove  a  deceiver.  Life  insurance 
costs,  on  the  average,  a  certain  sum.  To  be  real  and 
secure,  a  staff  and  not  a  reed,  certain  conditions  must  be 
observed.  The  modes  of  operation  may  vary  but  these 
conditions  cannot  be  ignored  with  impunity.  The  terms 
of  admission  must  be  such  as  to  exclude  the  feeble 
and  the  aged,  or  extra  sums  must  be  charged  sufficient 
to  cover  the  risk,  or  provide  a  fund  from  the  young 


146  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

and  strong  ready  to  meet  the  certain  loss.  To  omit 
in  variable  laws,  medical  examinations  on  grounds  of  "  fraternity"  with- 
out facing  the  inevitable  loss  in  advance  is  to  invite 
ruin.  Then  the  premiums  must  be  paid  according  to 
ages,  or  as  the  old  men  begin  to  die  off  rapidly  the 
younger  will  find  the  burden  unbearable  and  desert  the 
sinking  ship.  There  must  be  a  reserve  fund  sufficient 
to  meet  the  drafts  made  by  deaths  as  they  occur,  since 
life  insurance  is  simply  a  device  for  distributing  a  given 
sum  over  a  number  of  years.  Furthermore  a  society 
must  cover  a  wide  territory  so  as  to  be  able  to  divide 
the  losses  of  a  particularly  unfortunate  locality  over  a 
large  number  of  members. 

The  insurance  department  of  Massachusetts  has  pub- 
lished opinions  on  these  points.  The  English  "Friend- 
lies,"  described  by  Baernreither,  have  tried  all  sorts  of 
experiments  and  won  success  after  mistakes  and  fail- 
ures. If  a  friendly  society  enters  the  insurance  business 
it  must  submit  to  rational  laws  or  disappoint  the  hopes 
of  confiding  members. 

There  is  no  device  for  extracting  light  from  cucum- 
bers or  producing  perpetual  motion  without  a  constant 
renewal  of  force.  There  is  no  magic  in  life  insurance 
which  will  enable  men  to  pay  in  fifty  dollars  and  take 
out  a  thousand  dollars.  *  The  average  member  must,  in 
order  to  secure  to  his  family  the  sum  of  one  thousand 
dollars  at  death,  pay  each  year  a  sum  which,  together 
with  the  interest  compounded,  will  not  only  equal 
the  amount  desired  at  the  calculated  time  of  antici- 
pated death,  but  also  a  sum  for  the  expenses  of  the 
business.  No  philanthropy,  sentiment,  or  brotherly 

Sentiment  and  / 

mathematics.      goodness  can  circumvent  mathematics. 

It  is  highly  desirable  that  these  very  useful  societies 
should  be  placed  on  a  sound  basis.  This  can  be  done  in 


Organizations  of  Wage- Earners.  147 

several  ways.  The  diffusion  of  scientific  statements 
of  the  essential  principles  of  safe  life  insurance  is  the  first 
method.  Only  as  wage-earners  learn  accurately  the  ex- 
perience of  the  English  societies  and  the  results  of  statis- 
tical and  actuarial  study  will  they  make  the  necessary 
sacrifices  to  secure  sound  insurance.  The  ordinary 
assessment  plan  is  so  enticing  to  beginners  and  looks  so 
much  cheaper  on  its  face  that  many  are  led  astray. 
Knowledge  arms  the  worker  against  mathematical  falla- 
cies. Another  method  is  state  inspection  and  regulation. 
It  cannot  be  hoped  that  all  wage-earners  can  at  once 
master  the  principles  of  insurance.  These  are  complex 
and  difficult.  Just  as  the  government  protects  citizens 
against  short-weight  coins  and  tainted  meat,  so  it  should 
protect  citizens  against  societies  built  on  deceit  or  even 
on  unreliable  plans. 

Baernreither,  historian  and  eulogist  of  the  English  so-  Limitations 
cieties,  recognizes  defects  and  shortcomings  which  are  sodeUes.ly 
in  general  more  common  in  America  : 

These  societies,  as  a  whole,  are  imperfect  in  two  respects. 
They  do  not  reach  equally  all  grades  of  the  working  classes, 
while  for  the  more  helpless  and  the  poorer  portion  of  them 
they  provide  only  imperfect  forms  of  insurance  ;  and  then,  they 
are  not  yet  sufficiently  consolidated  to  prevent  the  insurance, 
purchased  perhaps  by  the  sacrifices  of  many  years,  from  being 
frustrated  by  insolvency,  an  eventuality  to  which  the  poorer 
workingmen  are  necessarily  more  exposed  than  thoir  brethren 
who  can  afford  to  join  the  sound  societies. 

What  is  here  set  down  is  the  warning  of  a  friend  of 
mutual  benefit  societies.  True  friendship  is  not  satis- 
fied with  flattery  but  seeks  absolute  clearness  and  safety. 
One  form  of  work  of  the  social  spirit  has  found  little 
more  than  a  beginning  in  America,  although  it  has  Cofi  eration 
promise  of  future  extension.  In  1844  the  Rochdale 
Pioneers  of  England  started  a  humble  store  in  Toad- 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Hopeful 

statistic*. 


Joint  stock 
companies. 


lane  with  twenty-eight  members  and  $140  capital.  In 
1892  there  were  reported  to  the  Royal  Commission 
of  Labor  in  Great  Britain  1,459  retail  distributive  coop- 
erative societies,  having  1,098,352  members,  with  ^n,- 
520.045  capital  and  £1,  207, 204  loans.  The  sales  during 
1891  amounted  to  ^31,514,634,  on  which  profits  of 
,£4,342,373  had  been  realized.  Why  does  not  this 
movement  extend  more  rapidly  in  America?  There 
are  several  reasons.  Our  economical  conditions  have 
been  very  different  from  those  of  the  old  country. 
Until  within  the  last  ten  years  every  man  had  a  chance 
of  escaping  from  the  wage  status  to  ownership  of  cheap 
government  land,  if  he  chose  to  do  so.  The  easy  pros- 
pect of  becoming  a  capitalist  by  taking  a  homestead 
tended  to  dissolve  the  bond  which  connected  the  mem- 
bers of  the  same  occupation.  A  permanent  residence  in 
a  city  or  manufacturing  town  was  not  thought  of  as 
necessary.  Wages  were  higher  than  -  in  any  other 
country  and  the  necessity  of  small  economies  was  not 
seriously  felt.  It  was  more  convenient  to  be  served  by 
retail  dealers  and  pay  for  the  luxury.  Such  were  some 
of  the  reasons  for  the  belated  introduction  and  success  of 
cooperation. 

And  even  now  the  principle  is  not  generally  under- 
stood and  appreciated  in  the  United  States.  There  is 
confusion  of  thought  in  respect  to  the  objects,  principles, 
and  methods  of  real  workingmen's  cooperation.  The 
idea  has  been  made  so  popular  by  the  English  success 
that  the  title  has  been  appropriated  by  various  promo- 
ters of  schemes  for  profit.  More  legitimate,  yet  still 
misleading,  is  the  use  of  the  term  by  all  kinds  of  joint 
stock  companies  in  which  the  members  invest  capital 
and  draw  dividends  in  proportion  to  capital  invested. 
There  is  no  obiection  to  this  method  of  investment.  For 


Organizations  of  Wage- Earners.  149 

a  long  time  it  will  be  one  of  the  best  ways  for  wage- 
earners  to  improve  their  conditions.  But  this  is  not  co- 
operation in  the  proper  sense. 

In  all  these  plans  the  gain  goes  to  capital  and  the  con- 
trol is  in  few  hands.  This  is  a  business  method  but  not  success  of 
a  workingman's  ideal.  The  fact  that  there  is  a  large  profit."* 
number  of  partners  and  that  they  are  manual  workers, 
as  is  the  case  in  so-called  cooperative  production,  does 
not  change  the  matter  in  its  essential  basis.  It  is  still  a 
company  in  which  the  profits  are  confined  to  the  mem- 
bers, while  the  great  public  is  excluded  from  the  benefit. 
Probably  for  this  reason  the  form  of  cooperative  pro- 
duction under  consideration  has  not  been  able  to 
command  sustained  enthusiasm  either  in  Great  Britain 
or  America.  It  appeals  to  too  narrow  a  range  of  inter- 
ests. It  leaves  control  in  the  hands  of  a  select  set,  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  community.  A  moderate  degree  of 
success  has  been  attained  under  very  favorable  circum- 
stances, as  in  the  case  of  the  coopers  of  Minneapolis  who 
have  a  contract  with  millers  to  take  their  entire  product 
of  barrels,  and  who  on  this  account  are  not  exposed 
to  the  vicissitudes  of  competition.  No  doubt  the  man- 
agement of  business  on  such  terms  is  a  valuable  educa- 
tion to  the  members  of  the  association.  Probably  it  is  a 
financial  advantage  to  them.  But  it  leaves  the  great 
body  of  wage-earners  about  where  they  were  before. 
The  trades  unions  in  time  of  strikes  have  repeatedly 
tried  to  establish  business  to  compete  with  the  employ- 
ers and  have  almost  uniformly  failed.  The  instructed 
leaders  say  that  failure  is  due  to  lack  of  education 
and  business  qualifications.  But  Beatrice  Potter,  in 
reviewing  the  English  movement,  said  that  all  such 
efforts  ought  to  fail  because  they  are  too  selfish  and  un- 
democratic. 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Democratic 
principle  of 
cooperation. 


Economic 
advantages. 


There  is  an  element  of  spiritual  and  prophetic  am- 
bition in  the  English  movement  which  is  thus  expressed 
by  Thomas  Hughes,  who  did  so  much  to  advance 
the  work  in  England:  "Human  society  is  a  body 
consisting  of  many  members,  not  a  collection  of  warring 
atoms.  True  workmen  must  be  fellow  workmen,  and 
not  rivals.  A  principle  of  justice,  not  of  selfishness, 
must  govern  exchanges."  The  dominant  aim  is  the 
welfare  of  the  community,  not  merely  the  interest  of  the 
trader  and  manufacturer.  The  joint  stock  company 
divides  profits  according  to  capital  and  gives  power 
according  to  investment.  Cooperators  divide  profits 
according  to  purchases,  and  management  is  based  on 
the  principle  ' '  one  man,  one  vote. ' '  The  one  plan 
is  limited  and  feudalistic  ;  the  other  is  frankly  and 
thoroughly  democratic  ;  its  aim  being  "to  place  all 
men  on  the  same  level  in  respect  to  control  over  man- 
agement, eligibility  for  office,  and  equally  divided 
profits." 

The  immediate  advantages  of  cooperation  are  seen  in 
the  superior  quality  of  goods,  in  protection  from  short 
weights  and  adulteration,  in  assurance  of  moderate 
prices.  Since  the  management  is  in  the  hands  of  con- 
sumers and  not  of  capitalists,  there  is  no  interest  in 
adulteration  nor  excessive  prices,  but  the  interest  is  all 
the  other  way.  Since  a  market  is  assured  by  the 
membership  there  is  small  expense  for  costly  advertis- 
ing. As  the  payments  are  for  cash  there  is  no  loss  for 
bad  debts  to  be  charged  up  to  the  prompt  customers  as 
a  punishment  for  being  good  citizens,  as  is  the  rule  in 
capitalistic  establishments.  Wage-earners  in  Great 
Britain  have  become  owners  of  millions  of  dollars  of 
capital  by  an  insensible  process.  Every  pound  of  coffee, 
meat,  or  flour  purchased  at  market  prices  represented  a 


Organizations  of  Wage- Earners.  151 


minute  investment.  The  cooperators  have  grown  rich 
literally  by  buying. 

Cooperators  have  something  of  that  education  which 
managers  of  business  enjoy.  They  must  discuss  and  Moral  advan- 
decide  questions  akin  to  those  which  tax  the  powers  and 
train  the  intelligence  of  merchants  and  bankers.  They 
must  learn  to  compromise  with  their  fellows,  to  cultivate 
tact,  courtesy,  patience  in  debate,  and  submission  to  the 
majority  after  vote  is  taken.  It  is  manifest  that  such 
training  tends  to  fit  wage-earners  for  that  true  dem- 
ocracy which  comes  nearer  each  generation.  Coopera- 
tors have  been  leaders  in  the  movements  to  secure  fair 
and  humane  treatment  of  employees  ;  as  in  granting 
shorter  hours,  half-holidays,  and  the  best  wages  ;  and  in 
mitigating  the  evils  of  sweating,  child  labor,  and  unsani- 
tary physical  conditions.  Many  societies  own  libraries 
and  halls  for  discussion,  provide  lecturers  and  entertain- 
ments, and  set  apart  a  per  cent  of  the  profits  for  these 
educational  purposes. 

There  must  be  one  price  plainly  marked,  and  that 
must  be  about  the  market  price ;  cash  payment  must  be  Conditions 

•   .     «  ...  •  •  ...     •  .          ofsuccess. 

insisted  on  without  exception,  since  credit  is  rum  ; 
dividends  are  assigned  to  purchasers  according  to  the 
amounts  of  registered  purchases  ;  the  members  buy 
shares,  but  each  member  has  only  one  vote  ;  the  in- 
vestment pays  a  certain  rate  of  interest  like  any  other 
capital  ;  the  employees  of  the  association  are  paid  fixed 
-ahries,  but  have  no  more  control  in  the  management 
than  other  members,  although  they  may  be  permitted  to 
vote  as  shareholders  ;  there  must  be  efficient  and  honest 
management,  since  defective  administration  will  wreck 
the  finest  scheme,  and  salaries  must  be  high  enough  to 
secure  competent  persons  and  remove  temptations  to 
steal.  In  order  to  diffuse  the  benefits  of  the  association 


152 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


The 

cooperative 
spirit. 


The  movement 
in  the  United 
States. 


as  widely  as  possible  the  cooperative  stores  are  open  to 
the  public.  "The  cooperative  spirit"  is  one  of  the 
essential  factors,  as  one  of  the  publications  defines  it : 

A  true  cooperator  has  three  qualities,  good  sense,  good  tem- 
per, and  good-will — good  sense  to  dispose  him  to  make  the 
most  of  his  means  ;  good  temper  to  enable  him  to  associate 
with  others  ;  and  good-will  to  incline  him  to  serve  them  and  be 
at  trouble  to  serve  them  and  go  on  serving  them,  whether  they 
are  grateful  or  not  in  return,  caring  only  that  he  does  good,  and 
finding  it  a  sufficient  reward  to  see  that  others  are  benefited 
through  his  unthanked  exertions. 

The  financial  success  of  the  movement  indicates  that 
these  qualities  are  not  altogether  lacking,  although  no 
one  would  claim  that  they  are  universally  present. 

In  the  appendix  will  be  found  recent  statistics 
gathered  by  Dr.  E.  W.  Bemis.  Outside  of  New  Eng- 
land the  conditions  are  not  yet  very  favorable  for  the 
Rochdale  plan  of  cooperation.  The  returns  for  1886 
showed  a  business  of  about  $1,000,000,  while  the  partial 
report  for  1895  yields  only  about  $900,000.  The  years 
of  depression  have  told  heavily  on  this  form  of  business 
as  well  as  on  others. 

In  New  England,  with  a  more  concentrated  popula- 
tion of  industrials,  there  has  been  greater  success.  Dr. 
Bemis  says  that  ' '  while  six  of  the  stores  that  had  a  trade 
of  $134,000  in  1886  are  now  closed,  the  trade  of  the  re- 
maining thirteen  of  those  in  existence  in  the  former 
period  has  grown  from  $479,000  to  $978,951.48,  and 
nine  new  stores  report  a  trade  of  $251,409.49.  The 
total  cooperative  trade  in  New  England,  almost  entirely 
on  the  Rochdale  plan,  is  thus  twice  as  great  as  ten 
years  ago." 

He  adds:  "A  few  cooperative  societies  secure  dis- 
counts elsewhere,  not  only  on  boots  and  shoes,  dry 
goods,  coal  and  wood,  hardware,  oil,  meat,  bread,  cloth- 


Organizations  of  Wage- Earners.  153 

ing,  and  furniture,  but  on  bicycles,  jewelry,  watches, 
milk,  musical  instruments,  laundry,  photographs,  ath- 
letic goods,  and  the  services  of  the  tailor,  dentist,  and 
physician." 

The  next  stage  of  development,  corresponding  to  that 
of  the  English  associations,  is  the  federation  of  all  the  Federation, 
societies  of  the  Rochdale  type.      The  Bulletin  of  Labor, 
No.  6,  gives  an  account  of  the  beginnings  of  this  move- 
ment. 

It  is  well  known  that  managers  of  business  are  mem- 
bers of  the  debtor  class,  the  heaviest  borrowers  in  Popular  cr«du. 
the  nation.  When  they  pay  six  per  cent  interest  they 
have  reason  to  hope  they  can  make  the  money  bring  ten 
per  cent  or  more  when  it  has  been  mixed  with  their 
powers  of  direction.  Credit  is  itself  capital  to  one  who 
can  use  it.  And  this  is  as  true  of  poor  men  as  of  rich 
men.  The  story  told  for  Continental  Europe  in  Wolff's 
"  People's  Banks"  is  more  interesting  than  a  novel.  It 
points  out  the  path  to  a  gold  mine.  It  shows  how 
the  wage-earners  can  redeem  themselves  from  the  clutch 
of  the  usurer  and  win  for  themselves  property. 
Throughout  the  civilized  world  the  workingmen  are 
coming  to  be  aware  of  this  instrument  of  elevation. 
Their  necessities  bring  them  into  cooperation,  which  is 
itself  civilizing. 

There  are  societies  known  in  this  country  by  various 
names,  as  Building  and  Loan  Associations,  Cooperative  bankhig.Uv< 
Banks,  Cooperative  Savings  and  Loan  Associations. 
They  are  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  joint 
stock  companies  of  private  capitalists  and  investors  who 
have  appropriated  the  name.  The  "  national "  building 
and  loan  associations  have  no  particular  interest  to  us 
here,  although  they  are  not  under  criticism.  All  the 
associations  here  mentioned  are  combinations  of  persons 


154 


TTie  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Statistics  of 
business. 


Method. 


of  limited  means,  largely  mechanics  and  clerks,  to  win 
a  possession  by  means  of  small  regular  payments.  The 
first  of  these  societies  was  formed  at  Frankford,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  1831.  In  the  Ninth  Annual  Report  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Labor  there  were  reported  from  forty- 
eight  states  and  territories  5,598  "local"  associations, 
with  710,156  male  shareholders  and  263,388  female 
shareholders,  of  whom  29.83  per  cent  were  borrowers. 
The  total  dues  paid  in  on  installment  shares  in  force 
plus  the  profits  amounted  to  $413,647,228.  If  we 
add  the  figures  for  the  240  "national"  societies  the 
amount  would  be  $450,667,594.  Mr.  C.  D.  Wright 
pays  this  tribute : 

A  business  represented  by  this  great  sum,  conducted  quietly, 
with  little  or  no  advertising,  and  without  the  experienced 
banker  in  charge,  shows  that  the  common  people,  in  their  own 
ways,  are  quite  competent  to  take  care  of  their  savings,  espe- 
cially when  it  is  known  that  but  thirty-five  of  the  associations 
now  in  existence  showed  a  net  loss  at  the  end  of  their  last  fiscal 
year  and  that  this  loss  amounted  to  only  $23,332.20. 

The  plan  of  organization  and  operation  is  not  compli- 
cated. The  capital  is  collected  by  the  letting  of  shares 
of  $200,  more  or  less.  These  shares  are  paid  for  by 
monthly  installments  of  one  dollar.  If  a  member  has  al- 
ready paid  for  a  lot  and  wishes  to  build  a  home  without 
ready  money  he  can  borrow  on  this  security  enough 
for  his  purpose  and  pay  it  back  with  interest  as  he  is 
able,  meantime  enjoying  the  use  of  his  house.  It  is  true 
that  he  must  often  pay  a  premium  to  secure  the  loan, 
and  the  interest  is  often  somewhat  higher  than  he  would 
have  to  pay  private  parties.  But  the  arrangement  to 
pay  in  small  sums  is  an  encouragement  to  undertake  and 
carry  through  a  plan  which  involves  foresight  and  self- 
denial.  There  is  a  danger  that  the  saving  may  be  made 


Organizations  of  Wage- Earners.  155 

at   the  expense  of   health  and  culture,    in  which  case 
it  comes  too  dear. 

It  may  be  asked  whether  there  is  any  field  for  credit 
among  wage-earners  in  cities  and  manufacturing  towns, 
It  may  be  thought  that  credit  is  the  bane  of  persons  °'  credit 
so  situated,  even  if  it  might  be  a  blessing  to  small  land- 
holders like  renters  and  peasants.  While  pondering 
this  point  the  following  advertisement  fell  under  the 
writer's  eye  : 

We  advance  money  to  honest  employees  holding  good  posi- 
tions with  first-class  firms  or  corporations,  without  security  of 
any  kind,  at  bankable  rates.  Positively  confidential.  Your 
employer  will  not  know  anything  about  it.  Established  17 
years. 

It  is  evident  from  such  notices  that  mechanics  and 
clerks  have  frequent  occasion  for  making  small  loans, 
that  honesty  and  occupation  can  be  coined  into  capital, 
and  that  capitalists  find  profit  in  lending  to  such  per- 
sons. Whether  the  advertisements  are  in  good  faith, 
and  whether  they  keep  their  word,  is  not  to  be  here 
discussed,  since  the  question  is  whether  such  a  social 
expedient  is  superfluous  or  not.  Why  not  organize 
for  mutual  benefit  rather  than  for  the  benefit  of  capital- 
ists ?  The  Raiffeisen  method  seems  applicable  to  this 
country  as  well  as  to  the  continent  of  Europe.  Here 
also  we  have  honest  and  capable  mechanics  and  clerks 
who,  in  a  pinch,  rather  than  ask  alms  or  favors,  are  com- 
pelled to  borrow  at  usurious  and  ruinous  rates  from 
private  parties.  This  is  especially  true  after  a  long  period 
of  depression  in  business.  There  are  also  many  cases 
in  which  a  man  could  secure  a  bit  of  valuable  property 
at  a  bargain  if  he  had  a  little  more  money  to  add  to  his 
limited  hoard.  In  other  instances  the  head  of  the  family 
might  be  assisted  by  the  mother  or  mature  daughter 


156 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Renters  need 
capital. 


Raiffeisen. 


if  they  could  command  a  little  capital  to  set  up  a  store. 
In  the  suburbs  of  towns,  near  schoolhouses  in  cities, 
near  depots  of  railroads,  and  in  other  situations  there  is, 
in  spite  of  the  colossal  department  stores,  an  oppor- 
tunity of  carrying  on  a  small  business  which  will  be  a 
convenience  to  the  neighbors.  In  the  suburbs  the  older 
children  might  cultivate  a  garden,  or  keep  a  cow  and 
sell  milk,  or  raise  chickens,  or  keep  flowers  for  the  mar- 
kets, if  they  had  a  little  capital.  These  illustrations  in- 
dicate a  permanent  field  of  no  mean  significance. 

One  thinks  also  of  the  colored  people  of  the  South, 
struggling  to  escape  the  grasp  of  the  money-lender,  yet 
compelled  to  employ  some  form  of  credit,  buying  every- 
thing at  exorbitant  rates  and  paying  a  crushing  interest 
on  his  loans.  And  what  is  true  of  the  negro  is  true 
of  multitudes  of  white  men,  North  and  South.  Of  what 
use  is  it  to  advise  men  to  leave  the  crowded  cities  and  till 
the  soil  when  they  have  no  tools,  no  food,  no  wagons, 
plows,  and  cattle  ?  Nature  in  the  most  fertile  regions 
has  no  pity  on  a  man  who  has  nothing  but  his  bare 
hands.  There  are  beginnings  of  associated  efforts  to 
furnish  mutual  help  which  might  be  promoted  by  apply- 
ing the  principle  of  the  Raiffeisen  banks  so  successful  in 
Germany. 

F.  W.  Raiffeisen  was  born  in  1818.  As  a  young  man, 
being  incapacitated  for  a  military  position  by  physical 
infirmity,  he  obtained  a  position  in  the  civil  service 
as  burgomaster  in  Westerwald.  It  was  a  bleak  and  im- 
poverished land,  with  barren  soil,  shut  off  from  large 
markets,  the  people  ill-fed,  oppressed  by  usurers  who 
lent  them  cattle  and  money  on  terms  which  pulled  them 
down  into  slavery.  Raiffeisen  raised  a  small  sum  of 
money  to  carry  out  his  social  invention  and  pushed  his 
plan  through  to  success  past  many  forms  of  opposition. 


Organizations  of  Wage- Earners.  157 

The  plan  as  developed  includes  the  following  elements  : 
the  capital  is  obtained  from  any  source,  and  is  frequently 
advanced  by  rich  men,  savings  banks,  and  trust  societies. 
Interest  is  paid  of  about  three  and  one  half  per  cent. 
The  borrowers  pay  about  five  per  cent.  There  are 
no  salaries  except  for  the  accountants.  The  expenses 
are  kept  at  the  lowest  possible  point  because  the  man- 
agement is  contributed  by  the  rich  and  experienced 
business  leaders  of  the  community.  There  are  no 
dividends,  because  all  profits  go  to  a  reserve  fund  or  to 
the  poor,  on  the  ground  that  the  least  taint  of  selfish 
motive  would  spoil  the  enterprise.  The  district  of 
operations  is  so  small  that  the  borrowers  are  acquainted 
with  each  other,  and  this  is  an  essential  factor  in  success. 
The  members  are  personally  liable  without  limit  for 
the  payment  of  the  loans,  and  this  makes  them  very 
careful  about  accepting  new  debtors.  The  only  security 
is  character.  No  mortgages  or  pledges  are  taken.  The 
note  of  hand  is  signed  by  the  borrower  and  perhaps  one 
or  two  friends  as  sureties.  Of  course  there  is  the  most 
careful  inquiry  as  to  the  habits,  honesty,  industry,  and 
outlook  of  the  borrower.  A  lazy,  inefficient  fellow 
might  get  credit  from  distant  strangers,  but  never  from 
his  neighbors. 

Germany  has  a  system  of  relief  for  paupers,  and  these  Mora,  effocts 
associates  are  independent  peasants,  proud  of  inde- 
pendence and  rejoicing  in  freedom  from  usurers.  The 
moral  influence  of  such  a  system  is  so  great  that  rural 
pastors  have  fostered  it  on  this  ground,  and  many  have 
declared  that  its  effects  are  surprising.  Drunkenness, 
idleness,  wastefulness  are  diminished  ;  thrift,  economy, 
industry  are  promoted.  There  is  higher  ambition  and 
less  discontent.  The  system  is  a  new  and  powerful 
social  bond  and  deepens  the  sense  of  local  attachments 


158  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

and  solidarity.  There  is  little  danger  from  vicious  radi- 
calism where  the  people  are  connected  by  a  bond  of 
mutual  helpfulness.  The  borrower  must  show  that  he 
can  make  good  use  of  the  capital  intrusted  to  him.  In 
forty-three  years  no  member  or  creditor  has  lost  a  cent. 
Various  other  forms  of  cooperation  have  grown  out 
of  this  movement.  The  People's  Banks  are  known, 
under  modified  forms,  in  Switzerland,  Italy,  Belgium, 
and  France. 

It  would  seem  from  this  survey  that  the  cooperative 

schemes  in  all  countries  have  failed  of  the  highest  suc- 

Unseifishness      cess  just  so  far  as  they  were  narrow  and  selfish ;  and 

a  factor  in  *  . 

business.  that   the   most  frankly  democratic  have  taken  deepest 

root  and  borne  most  abundant  fruit.  It  may  be  several 
generations  before  the  largest  enterprises  can  be  con- 
ducted on  a  democratic  plan  ;  but  a  beginning  has  been 
made  of  no  mean  proportions  and  with  splendid  promise. 
The  ethical  and  religious  idea  involved  in  this  chapter 
has  been  thus  expressed  : 

Man  thinks  of  the  few,  God  of  the  many  ;  and  the  many  will 
be  found  at  length  to  have  within  their  reach  the  most  effectual 
means  of  progress.  ...  I  have  expressed  a  strong  interest 
in  the  laboring  portion  of  the  community  ;  but  I  have  no 
partiality  to  them  considered  as  laborers.  My  mind  is  attracted 
to  them  because  they  constitute  the  majority  of  the  human 
race.  My  great  interest  is  in  human  nature,  and  in  the  working 
classes  as  its  most  numerous  representatives  (W.  E.  Channing, 
"  On  the  Elevation  of  the  Laboring  Classes  "). 


CHAPTER  X. 

ECONOMIC    COOPERATION    OF   THE    COMMUNITY. 

WE  have  in  the  chapters  immediately  preceding  con- 
sidered the  working  of  the  social  spirit  as  expressed 
in  the  helpful  acts  of  employers  and  of  organized  wage-  p^S?c  opinion, 
workers.  It  has  been  very  clear  that  there  are  some 
achievements  beyond  the  power  of  isolated  individuals, 
and  even  beyond  the  power  of  vast  private  associations. 
Every  great  community  has  under  its  control  other 
organs  of  regulation  and  enterprise — public  opinion, 
custom,  law,  and  government.  The  "struggle  for  ex- 
istence "  is  no  longer  mere  brute  conflict  for  the  means 
of  animal  satisfaction.  The  struggle  of  civilized  and 
Christianized  men  is  for  beauty,  amiable  character, 
dignity,  inward  worth.  In  the  family  the  violence 
of  antagonism  has  always  been  tempered  by  the  instinct- 
ive affections  of  parents.  In  all  higher  societies  sym- 
pathy, regard  for  the  welfare  of  neighbors,  patriotism, 
and  at  last  humanity  as  cosmopolitan  sentiment,  have 
transformed  the  motives  which  enter  into  the  contest. 
There  are  still  trials  of  strength,  ever  necessary  to 
determine  the  fitness  of  each  man  for  his  place,  but 
the  trial  is  no  longer  a  scrimmage  but  a  game  played 
according  to  rule. 

Slowly  but  surely  public  sentiment  is  crystallizing  into 
a  conviction  that  the  disputes  between  employers  and 
employees  shall  be  decided  by  rational  means  rather 
than  by  brute  force.  There  is  a  community  interest 
closely  connected  with  quiet  and  order.  There  is  a  sen- 

159 


i6o 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Unregistered 
tribunals  of 
peace. 


French  coun- 
cils. 


sitive  area  which  is  wounded  where  hunger  and  gun- 
powder are  asked  to  decide  between  capitalist  and 
laborer.  This  sentiment  is  shared  by  the  wage-workers 
and  the  employers  as  members  of  society  and  partici- 
pants in  the  spirit  of  the  age.  It  finds  expression  in  va- 
rious arrangements  and  institutions. 

America  has  already  shown  numerous  examples  of 
conciliatory  conferences.  If  the  great  world  only  knew 
what  was  going  on  in  factories  and  shops  they  would  be 
surprised  to  learn  how  few  occasions  of  dispute  ever  be- 
come public.  Incipient  riots  at  the  bench  are  daily 
quenched  by  good  sense,  and  soft  answers  on  both  sides 
turn  away  wrath.  As  the  social  spirit  takes  the  place  of 
a  mere  egoism  and  animal  instincts  the  settlement  of 
differences  will  be  more  frequently  a  direct  and  friendly 
act.  Both  in  England  and  this  country  various  methods 
have  been  devised  for  anticipating  trouble  by  agreement 
or  by  a  principle  of  settlement.  The  sliding  scale,  com- 
mon in  the  iron  and  coal  industries,  is  an  example  of 
this  type.  Under  this  arrangement  the  wages  go  up 
and  down,  automatically,  according  to  the  market  price 
of  the  product.  It  is  by  no  means  an  unobjectionable 
method,  but  it  is  preferable  to  war.  It  has  been  ac- 
cepted as  a  rough  standard  of  justice,  until  a  more 
equitable  scheme  can  be  devised.  In  scores  of  in- 
stances, on  the  eve  of  strikes,  trouble  has  been  avoided 
by  an  informal,  friendly  conference  of  managers  and 
representatives  of  the  workingmen. 

Since  1806  France  has  had  its  Conseils  des  Prud' 
Hommes,  a  tribunal  for  decision  of  disputes  between 
employers  and  employees.  These  courts  take  cogni- 
zance only  of  past  agreements  and  do  not  consider 
future  rates  of  wages.  Their  first  step  is  to  secure 
an  adjustment  by  conference  and  they  usually  succeed. 


Economic  Cooperation  of  the  Community.        161 


Afterward  the  matter  may  come  to  trial  and  be  con- 
cluded without  litigation,  and  enforced  as  in  the 
ordinary  cases.  Germany  and  other  countries  have 
adopted  the  principle.  Massachusetts,  generally  most  . .  .  . 
advanced  in  labor  legislation,  as  in  so  many  other  Massachusetts, 
things,  has  for  several  years  worked  upon  this  line.  The 
conscience  of  the  nation  will  not  long  tolerate  a  strike 
or  a  lockout  without  previous  resort  to  some  method  of 
conciliation  and  arbitration.  Whether  a  just  law  can  be 
framed  to  make  the  verdict  of  arbitration  final  and  com- 
pulsory, is  doubted  on  both  sides,  and  cannot  be 
regarded  as  a  settled  question.  In  respect  to  the  en- 
forcement of  contracts  and  specific  agreements  there  is 
no  great  difficulty.  But  neither  employers  nor  em- 
ployees are  willing  to  submit  the  future  rate  of  wages  to 
a  tribunal. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  the  services 
already  rendered  by  our  national  and  local  governments  protective 
for  the  economic  welfare  of  the  people.  Every  dollar 
that  we  earn  has  greater  purchasing  power  because  we 
enjoy,  in  a  high  degree,  the  help  and  defense  of  the 
state.  It  would  allay  discontent  and  subdue  distrust  if 
all  the  children  of  our  schools  could  be  shown  what  they 
and  their  parents  owe  to  the  government.  Life,  liberty, 
property,  good  name  are  under  the  great  shield  of 
the  nation.  The  fire  department  of  the  metropolis 
hurries  its  engines  to  quench  the  flames  which  are  con- 
suming the  two-room  cottage.  The  health  department 
is  busy  fighting  diseases  to  which  the  poor  are  especially 
exposed.  The  police  department  upholds  those  laws 
which  are  made  for  the  universal  welfare.  The  officer 
of  the  law  is  proud  to  escort  the  ragged  girl  across 
the  street,  as  well  as  to  warn  back  the  drivers  for  the 
lady  clad  in  rustling  silk.  Many  and  dark  are  the 


162 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Factory  laws. 


Protection 
of  working 
children. 


iniquities  of  the  police,  and  cruel  and  shameful  deeds  are 
done  by  courts  and  sheriffs  ;  but  these  are  done  in 
the  dark,  they  are  inconsistent  with  the  genius  of  our 
constitution,  and  they  are  in  express  violation  of  oaths 
of  office. 

Doubtless  we  should  urge  more  efficient  execution  of 
these  sacred  trusts.  The  adulterations  of  food  by 
grocers,  the  short  weights  and  measures  from  which 
all  suffer,  the  concealed  traps  set  by  unscrupulous 
plumbers  or  careless  builders,  require  vigilant  notice 
and  unsparing  criticism.  Reformers  have  yet  more 
enemies  to  conquer. 

The  necessity  of  placing  workshops  under  govern- 
ment control  has  long  been  felt  in  older  countries. 
Farmers  little  realize  what  this  means  because  they 
work  alone,  have  all  the  air  they  can  breathe,  are  not 
obliged  to  conform  to  the  motions  of  machinery  or 
of  fellow- workers,  and  can  control  their  hours  and 
methods  of  labor.  Most  of  our  legislatures  are  com- 
posed of  men  who,  generally  speaking,  have  formed 
their  ideas  according  to  rural  conditions.  They  cannot 
easily  appreciate  the  necessity  for  special  legislation 
regulating  the  life  of  operatives  in  city  shops  and  stores. 
A  conscientious  farmer  elected  to  the  legislature  owes  it 
to  himself  and  to  his  country  to  visit  the  factories, 
and  the  city  legislator  should  visit  the  farmers,  and  both 
should  exchange  opinions  in  relation  to  the  various 
demands  of  a  complex  and  growing  community. 

There  are  men  who  declare  that  legislation  should  not 
be  invoked  to  protect  adults  from  the  neglect,  greed, 
and  cruelty  of  employers.  But  few  intelligent  and 
humane  persons  will  object  to  laws  on  behalf  of  helpless 
children.  Experience  has  shown  in  all  modern  countries 
that  not  even  parental  affection  can  be  trusted  when 


Economic  Cooperation  of  the  Community.        163 

deep  poverty  presses  and  blind  ignorance  is  set  to 
watch.  In  the  ranks  of  the  noble  medical  profession 
unworthy  charlatans  can  be  found  who,  for  a  petty  bribe, 
will  sign  a  certificate  of  health  for  a  feeble  child.  Em- 
ployers may  be  found  who  accept  the  perjured  affidavit 
of  parents  that  their  children  are  of  age,  or  take  from 
them  a  release  in  case  of  injury  in  the  shop.  Nothing 
but  the  most  rigid  law,  carefully  enforced  by  state 
inspectors  and  physicians,  and  supported  by  enlightened 
public  opinion,  can  defend  child  life  from  heartless,  piti- 
less greed. 

Young  persons  are  more  easily  affected  by  unwhole- 
some trades  than  adults.  Saturated  with  the  nicotine 
vapors  of  tobacco  works  their  growth  is  stunted,  their  Perils  of 

,  .......  ....  the  young. 

heart  action  is  impaired,  their  powers  of  digestion  are 
enfeebled.  Set  to  work  in  stockyards  and  butcher-shops 
the  sensibilities  are  blunted  and  the  moral  nature  per- 
verted. Glass-works  are  so  hot  that  children  working 
in  them  go  blind,  become  rheumatic,  or  develop  tuber- 
culous tendencies.  Boys  are  permitted  to  grind  steel 
cutlery  at  emery  wheels,  and  are  murdered  by  the  dust. 
At  an  alarm  of  fire  a  throng  of  girls  crowded  in  a  box  or 
candy  factory  trample  each  other  in  panic  on  the  stairs. 
Young  people  do  not  appreciate  the  value  of  guards  for 
dangerous  machinery  ;  the  young  are  less  ready  to  use 
safety  devices  than  are  the  old.  The  figures  show  that 
the  girls  under  sixteen  have  thirty-three  times  the  prob- 
ability of  being  hurt  of  those  over  sixteen,  and  that 
practically  all  accidents  to  female  factory  operatives 
befall  the  young  and  inexperienced.  The  figures  also 
show  that  a  boy  in  a  Minnesota  factory  has  a  probability 
of  accident  about  twice  that  of  an  adult ;  and  that  his 
chance  of  fatal  accident  is  over  seven  times  as  great 
as  that  of  a  grown  man.  (Minnesota  Labor  Report.) 


164  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

When  it  is  thus  made  clear  that  accidents  are  certain 

to  occur  in  undue  ratio  among  children  the  necessity  of 

state  intervention  ought  to  be  clear.      It  is  amazing  how 

Compulsory        the  pressure  of  poverty  blinds  parents  and  avarice  blinds 

education.  *  r 

employers  to  the  significance  of  these  facts.  The  place 
for  the  child  is  not  in  the  factory  but  in  school.  A 
reasonable  amount  of  work  in  the  garden  along  with 
kind  parents  may  not  injure  a  young  person,  but  work 
in  a  close  factory,  a  steamy  laundry,  amidst  the  vapors 
of  chemical  works,  is  murderous.  For  the  sake  of  the 
coming  race  all  children  should  be  given  a  chance  to 
start  in  the  race  of  life  with  the  elements  of  education 
and  without  the  handicap  of  acquired  disease.  Very 
pitiful  is  the  condition  of  many  children  who  work  at 
errands  or  as  cash  carriers  in  great  stores.  Years  after 
factory  children  are  protected  these  weary  little  ones  are 
overlooked.  Ladies  who  buy  their  goods  so  cheaply  in 
these  magazines  should  not  forget  that  the  child  em- 
ployees are  paying  a  part  of  the  price.  If  extreme 
poverty  has  compelled  parents  to  send  young  children 
to  labor  then  the  community  must  assist.  The  result 
would  be  that  when  the  children  are  taken  out  of  public 
occupation  adults,  the  natural  breadwinners,  would  find 
employment.  As  it  is  the  little  ones,  because  their 
labor  is  cheap,  drive  out  their  own  parents  from  wage- 
earning  employments,  and  reduce  whole  families  to  beg- 
gary. There  is  no  apology  or  excuse  in  any  American 
community  for  permitting  children  under  fourteen  to  be 
out  of  school  and  chained  up  to  serve  pitiless  machinery. 
Regulation  by  law  has  been  found  necessary  in  case 
Women  of  the  public  work  of  women.  It  is  idle  to  say  they  are 

workers.  *  * 

able  to  take  care  of  themselves  ;  they  cannot.  They  are 
practically  shut  out  from  employing  the  methods  of 
trades  unions  just  where  those  are  most  needed.  All 


Economic  Cooperation  of  the  Community.        165 

modern  states  have  been  compelled  to  prevent  women 
from  working  in  mines,  in  dark  places,  and  at  all-night 
occupations.  And  while  legal  restrictions  must  not  be 
made  to  hinder  women  from  earning  an  honest  living 
under  suitable  conditions  there  is  one  principle  which 
may  be  applied  as  a  test  of  suitability  in  all  situations : 
the  proved  tendency  of  the  occupation  under  given  con- 
ditions to  destroy  health  and  unfit  women  for  their 
duties  as  wives  and  mothers.  The  character  and  health 
of  women  workers  are  not  a  mere  private  concern  ;  the 
very  existence  of  society  is  involved.  Therefore  society 
is  not  violating  individual  rights  when  it  adopts  whole- 
some measures  of  control. 

It  is  said  that  the  fatal  accidents  in  the  mines  of  Great 
Britain  and   Ireland   show  a  decrease  during   the  last   Kffi.-ieiK-v 

of factory 

forty  years  of  more  than  double  per  1,000  tons  of  coal  inspection, 
produced,  and  a  decrease  from  3.9  to  1.6  per  thousand 
persons  employed.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  increased 
efficiency  and  perfection  of  machinery,  but  still  more  to 
the  legislation  which  excluded  women  and  children  from 
the  perilous  mines,  which  required  the  use  of  safety 
lamps  and  other  devices,  and  which  made  employers 
liable  in  costs  for  injuries  for  which  the  management  was 
responsible.  What  can  the  reader  of  these  lines  do 
to  help  our  miners  ?  He  can  ask  a  labor  leader  to  tell 
him  the  present  requirements  in  his  own  state  and  write 
a  letter  to  the  representative  in  the  legislature  asking 
him  to  give  it  attention.  He  can  study  the  reports 
of  the  factory  inspectors  and  assist  in  urging  their 
recommendations.  The  persons  best  informed  as  to  the 
dangers  and  injuries  to  which  wage-workers  are  exposed 
are  the  leaders  of  trades  unions.  Ministers  of  the  gospel 
and  all  other  defenders  of  human  rights,  health,  and 
happiness,  should  learn  from  the  representatives  of  the 


1 66 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


The  sweating 
evil. 


Inside  the 
sweat-shop. 


workingmen  and  give  voice  to  their  reasonable  demands. 
Mr.  Henry  White,  general  secretary  of  the  United 
Garment  Workers  of  America,  thus  defines  the  sweating 
system  :  "A  condition  of  labor  in  which  a  maximum 
amount  of  work  in  a  given  time  is  performed  for  a  mini- 
mum wage,  and  in  which  the  ordinary  rules  of  health 
and  comfort  are  disregarded.  It  is  inseparably  asso- 
ciated with  contract  work,  and  it  is  intensified  by  sub- 
contracting in  shops  conducted  in  homes."  The  most 
serious  evils  grow  out  of  the  crowding  of  strangers  into 
the  homes  set  apart  for  the  family.  Foreign  immigrants 
without  skill,  but  thrifty  and  industrious,  unacquainted 
with  the  laws  of  health  and  with  a  low  standard  of  living, 
are  the  victims  and  causes  of  this  evil.  The  crowding  of 
cities,  the  excessive  cost  of  rents,  and  the  method  of 
contracting-out  work  are  favoring  conditions.  The 
community,  once  awake  to  the  misery  and  degrada- 
tion of  this  system,  can  cooperate  to  reduce  its  danger 
by  refusing  to  buy  goods  without  the  guarantee  of  a 
union  label  that  they  are  not  made  in  insanitary  rooms 
and  at  starvation  wages.  Community  action  is  also 
necessary  in  order  to  secure  and  sustain  laws  which  pro- 
hibit the  manufacture  of  clothing  in  rooms  occupied  by 
families ;  or  in  infected,  filthy,  and  dark  places  ;  or 
by  little  children.  Public  opinion  should  also  demand 
an  adequate  number  of  efficient  inspectors  and  give 
them  moral  support  in  enforcing  the  statutes.  The  min- 
isters ought  to  discover,  by  faithful  parish  work,  the 
existence  of  these  wrongs  and  should  direct  the  moral 
opposition  of  religious  people  against  the  iniquity.  Phi- 
lanthropy and  patriotism  must  join  with  religion  in 
invoking  the  ordinance  of  government  on  behalf  of  the 
oppressed  slave  of  the  tenement  as  well  as  on  behalf 
of  public  health  and  purity. 


Economic  Cooperation  of  the  Community.        167 

All  the  mutual  benefit  societies,  the  incorporated 
companies,  the  lodges,  the  fraternal  insurance  associa- 
tions  require  the  recognition  of  public  authority.  They 
cannot  live  as  legal  persons,  sue  and  be  sued,  and  carry 
on  enterprises,  without  legislation.  They  cannot  defend 
themselves  from  fraud  and  unscrupulous  competition 
without  legal  help.  So  that  some  social  cooperation 
and  oversight  are  essential  in  the  promotion  of  self-help. 
The  building  and  loan  association  needs  to  be  protected 
against  dishonest  competitors  and  managers  ;  and  the 
public  requires  safeguards  against  wily  schemers  or 
incompetent  organizers  of  companies. 

Some  of  the  states  are  providing  agencies  for  the 
registration  of  men  seeking  employment.  Much  time 
and  money  are  lost  by  traveling  blindly  and  aimlessly 
from  place  to  place  in  search  of  occupation.  Business 
men  do  not  know  where  to  look  on  the  instant  for  work- 
men. To  bring  the  two  parties  together  is  the  function 
of  the  employment  bureau.  The  private  bureaus  are 
not  always  reliable,  and  are  often  distrusted.  The 
charitable  agencies  are  shunned  by  independent  and 
skilled  workmen.  The  state  bureau  meets  the  need. 

The  great  industry  which  began  with  the  century  has  Trusts  d 
grown  to  colossal  height.  The  progress  of  combination  combinations 
of  capital  has  been  resistless  and  magical.  What  has 
the  social  spirit  to  say  and  do  in  presence  of  this 
phenomenal  product  of  the  age  of  steam-driven  machin- 
ery ?  Can  the  ordinary  patriotic  citizen  do  nothing  but 
fold  his  hands  in  despair,  or  cry  to  a  pitiless  and  relent- 
less fate  ?  There  is  not  a  citizen  so  humble  but  can  help 
himself  and  his  country.  The  vaster  the  corporation 
the  more  it  attracts  public  attention.  Child  labor  was  a 
hidden  and  incurable  evil  until  it  was  massed  in  a  huge 
bulk  before  the  public  eye  in  factories,  and  there  it 


1 68 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Criminal  acts. 


Politics  and 
franchises. 


began  to  be  corrected  by  law.  Corporations  are  very 
powerful  but  the  state  which  gives  them  a  charter 
can  take  it  away,  modify  it,  or  make  better  terms.  The 
matter  is  not  nearly  so  difficult  or  dangerous  as  it  is 
sometimes  represented  by  excited  alarmists.  Let  us  see 
first  what  the  social  spirit  has  for  its  work. 

First  of  all,  if  criminal  acts  have  been  done,  there 
is  the  machinery  of  the  courts  to  discover,  to  prove, 
to  punish  by  civil  or  criminal  process.  We  have 
learned  in  the  case  of  the  most  powerful  robbers  that 
detection  is  possible  and  punishment  can  be  inflicted. 
Before  a  jury  a  corporation  is  already  at  a  disadvantage. 
The  fewer  the  rich  criminals  the  greater  interest  has  the 
public  in  suppressing  them. 

In  the  second  place,  if  the  corporation  is  acting  con- 
trary to  public  policy  and  contrary  to  its  charter, 
we  have  courts  and  legislatures  through  which  to 
revoke  charters.  Again,  charters  are  given  for  a 
limited  period,  and  when  they  are  about  to  expire 
the  public  can  make  better  terms. 

Some  of  the  worst  injuries  have  been  done  by  city 
and  state  legislatures  elected  by  the  people.  Franchises 
have  been  given  away  because  the  people  chose  repre- 
sentatives who  were  either  dishonest  or  weak.  A  town 
or  state  will  have  as  good  government  as  it  deserves.  If 
the  honest  men  refuse  to  take  aggressive  part  in  carry- 
ing on  their  own  government  they  must  not  whine  if 
venal  and  treacherous  men  sell  out  the  public  interest 
for  private  pelf. 

A  community  is  not  shut  up  to  one  single  method  of 
reducing  a  monopoly  to  serve  instead  of  dominate.  For 
example  :  a  city  council  disposed  to  be  honest  can  either 
let  out  contracts  for  street-car  service  on  the  best  terms 
to  the  highest  bidders  ;  or  it  can  tax  the  franchises  when 


Economic  Cooperation  of  the  Community.        169 

they  expire  ;  or  it  can  build  its  own  lines  if  it  thinks  that 

the  most  economical  method.     In   the  same  way  rail-  Control  of 

*  corporations. 

roads,  refineries,  coal  oil  corporations,  and  all  other 
large  combinations  of  capital  can  be  brought  under  con- 
trol. It  is  simply  a  question  of  whether  a  democracy 
can  command  the  services  of  honest  and  capable  legisla- 
tors and  legal  advisers.  There  is  absolutely  nothing  in 
the  nature  of  the  case  to  fear.  The  great  corporations 
have  developed  a  machinery  for  production  which  has 
marvelous  efficiency  and  economy.  The  consumers 
have  shown  their  appreciation  by  buying  the  product 
where  it  was  produced  most  cheaply.  It  remains  for  the 
public  not  to  destroy  this  elaborate  and  magnificent 
industrial  and  commercial  machinery,  but  to  put  a  yoke 
on  it,  and  compel  it  to  work  in  the  way  most  friendly  to 
the  common  weal.  Niagara  Falls  have  been  harnessed 
and  compelled  to  serve  the  public.  Great  trusts  can  be 
brought  to  terms  by  the  invention  and  use  of  suitable 
political  machinery,  managed  by  capable  and  honest 
legislators  and  administrators. 

In  Mr.  Spahr's  "The  Present  Distribution  of  Wealth 
in  the  United  States ' '  we  are  told  :  "  Less  than  half  the  Danger  from 

.....  .  ,     ,  great  estates. 

families  m  America  are  property-less ;  nevertheless, 
seven  eighths  of  the  families  hold  but  one  eighth  of  the 
national  wealth,  while  one  per  cent  of  the  families  hold 
more  than  the  remaining  ninety-nine."  The  method  by 
which  this  astounding  result  was  reached  is  not  beyond 
criticism.  But  the  accumulation  of  portentous  fortunes 
is  unquestioned.  It  leaps  to  the  eye.  When  this  accu- 
mulation is  the  result  of  a  service  to  the  public  worth  far 
more  than  its  cost,  and  while  the  wealth  is  employed  in 
legitimate  and  useful  industries,  we  have  nothing  but 
praise  for  owners  and  managers.  If  a  great  capitalist 
becomes  a  millionaire  or  a  billionaire  by  taking  a  moder- 


170  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

ate  commission  on  a  commercial  invention  or  achieve- 
ment which  enriches  the  nation,  no  reasonable  person 
can  complain.  He  remains  still  a  mere  trustee  through 
whose  hands  the  stream  of  public  capital  flows. 

But  so  far  as  such  fortunes  are  accumulated  by 
perjured  assessment  lists  ;  by  bribing  the  assessors  to 
return  property  at  a  rate  far  below  that  returned  by 
poorer  men  ;  by  bribery  of  legislators  and  courts  ;  or  by 
any  other  inequitable  and  atrocious  process — that  is 
matter  for  a  new  criminal  law  adapted  to  the  new 
temptations  of  recent  commercial  life. 

And  if  the  evil  presses  until  it  becomes  intolerable 
a  way  will  be  found,  perhaps  with  a  new  Supreme 
Taxing  power.  Court,  to  lay  an  income  tax.  Already  the  principle  of 
the  inheritance  tax  has  been  grafted  upon  the  legislation 
of  some  states  and  it  is  always  a  means  of  turning  the 
attention  of  heirs  to  the  wisdom  of  cultivating  habits 
of  industry  in  their  youth.  The  truth  is  that  the  dem-' 
ocracy  has  absolute  control.  It  is  a  sleeping  giant  not 
yet  fully  conscious  of  its  strength.  The  chief  danger 
always  is  that  when  it  wakes  up  it  may  at  first,  drunk 
with  a  sense  of  power,  become  unjust  and  foolish.  The 
remedy  for  that  is  the  schoolhouse  and  the  church, 
knowledge  and  justice,  the  social  spirit. 

Examples  of  the  helpfulness  of  state  agencies  in  rela- 
iv.sitive  min-      tion  to  economic  welfare  may  be  given  to  show  not  onlv 

.siriesof  J 

government.  what  has  been  done  but  what  remains  to  achieve.  At 
this  writing  the  United  States  government  is  behind 
most  of  the  great  nations  in  respect  to  postal  savings 
banks,  and  it  is  to  our  reproach.  Here  are  the  offices  of 
the  postal  service  ready  at  hand,  in  every  city,  town,  and 
village  throughout  our  great  country.  There  is  a  corps 
of  trained  officials  who  could,  with  little  additional  cleri- 
cal assistance,  handle  the  small  savings  of  the  people,  as 


Economic  Cooperation  of  the  Community.        171 

is  done  in  Europe.  What  would  be  the  advantage 
of  such  a  system?  The  very  poor  would  be  encouraged 
to  save  a  little  from  hard-won  earnings  and  set  it  aside 
for  the  days  of  need.  Timid  people,  who  are  frightened 
by  the  rare  cases  of  failure  of  private  banks,  would  trust 
the  government.  Inhabitants  of  suburbs  and  of  remote 
villages  would  find  it  convenient  to  make  deposits  if  • 

there  was  an  office  near  them  to  keep  their  treasures 
securely.  Regular  banks  would  not  be  disturbed  by  the 
new  agency,  because  large  deposits  would  still  go  as 
they  do  now  to  commercial  houses.  People  would  thus 
be  able  to  accumulate  a  moderate  capital  for  favorable 
investment,  and  they  would  become  still  more  deeply 
attached — German,  Irish,  Bohemians,  Russians,  Italians 
— to  the  government  which  takes  care  of  their  slender 
but  precious  hoard. 

The  public  schools  should  not  only  teach  thrift  but 
should  give  discipline  in  the  habit  of  saving  by  collect- 
ing the  pennies  by  means  of  a  stamped  card,  and  so 
assisting  the  growth  of  a  social  custom  which  is  more 
valuable  than  a  gold  mine  or  a  diamond  field. 

What  can  you  do,  reader?  Sit  down  at  once  and 
write  a  letter  to  your  congressman  and  another  to  your 
senator  at  Washington,  and  ask  them  what  they  are 
going  to  do  about  the  postal  savings  bank  ?  By  the 
way,  do  you  know  the  names  of  these  gentlemen  ? 

Those  who  oppose  such  uses  of  municipal  and  state 
government  as  is  here  urged  are  fond  of  calling  it  ..  palert,aijsm. 
' '  paternal, ' '  and  of  representing  that  self-respecting 
workingmen  do  not  want  to  be  "patronized"  by  the 
government.  But  what  is  the  government  ?  Is  it,  as  it 
once  was,  a  royal  person  who  grants  favors  to  subjects 
in  answer  to  a  beggar's  plea  ?  Is  not  our  government, 
under  a  democracy,  simply  our  own  tool  to  use  for  the 


CHAPTER  XI. 


More  power, 
more  respon- 
sibility. 


Political  duty. 


POLITICAL    REFORMS. 

WE  have  been  considering  the  wisdom  and  methods 
of  extending  the  functions  of  our  various  governments. 
But  these  governments  are  only  so  good  as  our  political 
morality  and  skill  can  make  them.  Unless  we  can  im- 
prove our  city  councils  and  secure  better  officials  it  will 
be  dangerous  to  intrust  to  them  more  responsibility. 
There  is  not  a  business  man  in  the  country  who  would, 
in  the  present  condition  of  things,  confide  to  a  city 
council  the  management  of  his  bank  or  his  railroad. 
Good  citizenship  must  now  resolutely  set  itself  to  the 
task  of  securing  honest,  efficient,  trained  administrators 
of  public  business. 

The  first  political  duty  of  a  patriotic  person  is  to 
master  in  thought  the  framework  and  activity  of  our 
national,  state,  city,  county,  and  township  governments  ; 
to  fix  clearly  in  his  mind  what  are  the  actual  duties 
of  each  official  in  the  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial 
branches  of  government.  How  can  we  criticise  the  con- 
duct of  our  public  employees  until  we  know  what  they 
ought  to  do  ?  The  constitution  of  the  United  States  is 
not  a  long  document  and  it  tells  the  essential  things 
in  relation  to  national  officials.  The  constitution  of 
every  state  describes  the  work  laid  out  for  governor, 
judges,  courts,  legislators,  and  county  officers.  The 
charter  of  a  city  prescribes  the  task  of  municipal  agents. 
There  are  books,  written  by  able  men,  which  explain 
constitutions  and  laws,  and  recite  their  history.  Even 

174 


Political  Reforms.  175 

young  persons  are  capable  of  learning  the  fundamental 
elements  of  our  government.  No  one  can  read  the 
daily  newspaper  intelligently  who  has  not  first  studied 
the  general  outline  and  history  of  all  these  governments.  Preparation 

for  newspaper 

But  with  a  map  of  the  whole  field  in  his  mind  the  reader  »eadinK- 
knows  how  to  find  the  right  pigeon-hole  for  every 
fragment  of  information  which  is  supplied  by  the  period- 
ical press.  Without  this  systematic  study  of  government 
the  daily  newspaper  is  confusing,  and  the  reading  of  it 
induces  partisanship.  Only  when  the  mind  is  prepared 
by  a  theoretical  and  historical  study  can  the  journal  do 
its  best  service  for  the  mind  and  for  conduct. 

There  are  some  kinds  of  work  which  a  government 
must  perform  as  a  condition  of  social  existence  and 
order,  and  these  may  be  called  necessary  functions.  For 
example  :  the  nation  must  provide  an  army  and  navy  to 
protect  it  against  foreign  invasions  and  injuries,  and  to 
maintain  peace  at  home.  A  nation  or  a  state  must 
determine  who  shall  be  citizens  and  who  shall  have  a  work  oVthe* 
share  in  political  control  as  voters  and  officers.  Laws 
must  be  made  to  decide  disputes  among  citizens  about 
the  rights  of  property,  the  ownership  of  land,  the  in- 
heritance of  estates,  the  obligations  of  parents  and  chil- 
dren, of  husband  and  wife.  Evil-doers  must  be  re- 
strained and  convicted,  and  measures  must  be  taken 
to  prevent  crime.  No  society  can  maintain  its  existence, 
much  less  its  peace,  without  such  general  regulations 
from  an  authority  which  the  people  recognize.  Legis- 
latures must  make  laws;  courts  must  tell  what  they 
mean  ;  governors,  presidents,  and  mayors  must  ad- 
minister. 

We  have  already  seen  that  a  government  may  go 
beyond  the  merely  protective  work  of  maintaining  order 
and  may  be  made  an  agency  of  progress.  A  vigorous, 


CHAPTER  XI. 


More  power, 
more  respon- 
sibility. 


Political  dutv. 


POLITICAL    REFORMS. 

WE  have  been  considering  the  wisdom  and  methods 
of  extending  the  functions  of  our  various  governments. 
But  these  governments  are  only  so  good  as  our  political 
morality  and  skill  can  make  them.  Unless  we  can  im- 
prove our  city  councils  and  secure  better  officials  it  will 
be  dangerous  to  intrust  to  them  more  responsibility. 
There  is  not  a  business  man  in  the  country  who  would, 
in  the  present  condition  of  things,  confide  to  a  city 
council  the  management  of  his  bank  or  his  railroad. 
Good  citizenship  must  now  resolutely  set  itself  to  the 
task  of  securing  honest,  efficient,  trained  administrators 
of  public  business. 

The  first  political  duty  of  a  patriotic  person  is  to 
master  in  thought  the  framework  and  activity  of  our 
national,  state,  city,  county,  and  township  governments  ; 
to  fix  clearly  in  his  mind  what  are  the  actual  duties 
of  each  official  in  the  executive,  legislative,  and  judicial 
branches  of  government.  How  can  we  criticise  the  con- 
duct of  our  public  employees  until  we  know  what  they 
ought  to  do  ?  The  constitution  of  the  United  States  is 
not  a  long  document  and  it  tells  the  essential  things 
in  relation  to  national  officials.  The  constitution  of 
every  state  describes  the  work  laid  out  for  governor, 
judges,  courts,  legislators,  and  county  officers.  The 
charter  of  a  city  prescribes  the  task  of  municipal  agents. 
There  are  books,  written  by  able  men,  which  explain 
constitutions  and  laws,  and  recite  their  history.  Even 

174 


Political  Reforms.  175 

young  persons  are  capable  of  learning  the  fundamental 
elements  of  our  government.  No  one  can  read  the 
daily  newspaper  intelligently  who  has  not  first  studied 
the  general  outline  and  history  of  all  these  governments.  fonews » 
But  with  a  map  of  the  whole  field  in  his  mind  the  reader  «*adinK- 
knows  how  to  find  the  right  pigeon-hole  for  every 
fragment  of  information  which  is  supplied  by  the  period- 
ical press.  Without  this  systematic  study  of  government 
the  daily  newspaper  is  confusing,  and  the  reading  of  it 
induces  partisanship.  Only  when  the  mind  is  prepared 
by  a  theoretical  and  historical  study  can  the  journal  do 
its  best  service  for  the  mind  and  for  conduct. 

There  are  some  kinds  of  work  which  a  government 
must  perform  as  a  condition  of  social  existence  and 
order,  and  these  may  be  called  necessary  functions.  For 
example  :  the  nation  must  provide  an  army  and  navy  to 
protect  it  against  foreign  invasions  and  injuries,  and  to 
maintain  peace  at  home.  A  nation  or  a  state  must 
determine  who  shall  be  citizens  and  who  shall  have  a  work  of  the 
share  in  political  control  as  voters  and  officers.  Laws 
must  be  made  to  decide  disputes  among  citizens  about 
the  rights  of  property,  the  ownership  of  land,  the  in- 
heritance of  estates,  the  obligations  of  parents  and  chil- 
dren, of  husband  and  wife.  Evil-doers  must  be  re- 
strained and  convicted,  and  measures  must  be  taken 
to  prevent  crime.  No  society  can  maintain  its  existence, 
much  less  its  peace,  without  such  general  regulations 
from  an  authority  which  the  people  recognize.  Legis- 
latures must  make  laws;  courts  must  tell  what  they 
mean  ;  governors,  presidents,  and  mayors  must  ad- 
minister. 

We  have  already  seen  that  a  government  may  go 
beyond  the  merely  protective  work  of  maintaining  order 
and  may  be  made  an  agency  of  progress.  A  vigorous, 


176 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Government 
agencies  of 
progress  and 
convenience. 


Party  politics. 


ambitious,  humane  people  will  not  merely  employ  their 
legal  machinery  to  maintain  the  being  of  the  nation  ; 
they  will  also  employ  it  to  promote  well-being.  They 
will  not  permit  a  dry  theory,  a  mere  arbitrary  assump- 
tion as  to  the  right  use  of  government,  to  cripple  its  use- 
fulness. If  they  believe  a  national  post-office  can  serve 
the  public  need  of  communication  they  will  suppress  all 
private  competition  in  that  field  by  a  national  monopoly. 
If  they  come  to  believe  that  the  telegraph,  as  in  Europe, 
should  be  owned  by  the  public  rather  than  by  private 
companies,  they  will  erect  their  government  telegraph 
lines  and  go  into  the  business.  If  the  people  of  a  city 
come  to  think  that  gas,  electricity,  water,  or  street-cars 
can  be  furnished  more  cheaply  by  local  government, 
they  will  find  a  way  of  adding  this  department.  A  gov- 
ernment is  simply  an  organ  of  public  convenience  ;  it  is 
the  means  by  which  the  people  in  a  given  territory  get 
what  they  want.  That  is  the  definition  given,  not  by 
theorists,  but  by  the  actual  life  and  conduct  of  all  mod- 
ern countries.  If  a  community  find  it  has  made  a  mis- 
take and  can  secure  commodities  or  services  better 
through  contracts  with  private  parties  it  is  always  able 
to  lease  out  its  streets,  watercourses,  roads,  or  other 
common  property  on  favorable  terms. 

In  our  age  and  country  the  citizen  must  generally 
act  through  a  party.  Edmund  Burke  defined  a  party  as 
"a  body  of  men  united  for  promoting  by  their  joint  en- 
deavors the  national  interest  upon  some  particular  prin- 
ciple in  which  they  are  agreed."  And  he  urges  that  a 
citizen  ought  to  seek  to  make  his  convictions  felt  by 
cooperation  with  his  fellow -citizens.  "  I  find  it  im- 
possible to  conceive  that  any  one  believes  in  his  own 
politics,  or  thinks  them  to  be  of  any  weight,  who  refuses 
to  adopt  the  means  of  having  them  reduced  to  practice. ' ' 


Political  Reforms.  177 

Lieber  declares  :  "  It  is  impossible  for  civil  liberty  to  ex- 
ist without  parties.  ...  A  sound  party,  which  the 
conscientious  citizen  may  join,  ought  to  have  the  follow- 
ing characteristics:  Its  principle  ought  to  be  an  enlarged  Party  principle 
and  great  one,  a  noble  principle  worthy  of  moving 
masses  ;  its  members  ought  to  be,  if  possible,  large  ;  its 
consistency  and  mutual  adherence  ought  to  be  chiefly  a  • 

moral  or  mental  one,  and  it  should  have  its  strength  in 
physical  organization  ;  its  members  ought  to  feel,  and 
act  as  if  they  felt,  that  before  all  they  are  citizens  of  their 
country. ' ' 

Selfishness,  narrowness  of  interest,  unpatriotic  use  of 
party  machinery  for  sectional  and  personal  ends  are  the 
bane  and  curse  of  parties,  the  diseases  of  political  organ-  National  aims, 
ization.  A  healthy,  worthy  party  is  a  voluntary  associa- 
tion of  citizens  for  promoting  the  welfare  of  the  whole 
nation.  The  existence  and  maintenance  of  political  par- 
ties at  great  cost  are  proofs  of  the  high  estimate  placed 
by  the  people  on  their  institutions.  Of  course  corrupt 
and  designing  men  contribute  to  party  funds  and  work 
for  party  success  for  unworthy  ends,  and  even  criminal 
use  is  often  made  of  the  ' '  machine. ' '  And  yet  political 
machinery  is  just  as  necessary  as  educational,  commer- 
cial, or  ecclesiastical  machinery.  It  is  not  a  sign  of 
healthy  morality  when  people  sneer  at  parties  and  talk 
loftily  of  the  mean  tricks  of  politicians,  while  they  stand 
aloof  from  the  conflict  in  order  to  keep  their  cuffs  clean. 
It  is  sheer  cowardice  and  poltroonery,  not  ethical  and 
religious  superiority,  which  regards  political  wire-pulling 
with  contempt.  Jesus  did  not  pray  that  his  disciples 
should  be  taken  out  of  the  world,  but  that  they  might  be 
delivered  from  the  evil  ;  that  they  might  maintain  their 
integrity  in  the  caucus,  the  committee,  the  club,  the 
mass-meeting,  the  lobby. 


178 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


False  inde- 
pendence. 


Independent 
action. 


When  party  spirit  is  no  longer  identified  with  the 
national  interest,  with  all  the  elements  of  welfare  for  the 
entire  people,  and  becomes  a  mere  breath  and  voice 
of  class,  or  set,  or  sect,  or  trade,  or  profession,  then  it  is 
evil.  Lieber  names  several  classes  of  citizens  according 
to  their  relations  to  parties  :  ' '  apathists,  neutrals  or  in- 
dependents, party-members,  partisans  or  zealots,  fac- 
tionists,  and  trimmers."  Too  many  fastidious  and 
conceited  citizens  who  pretend  to  be  independent 
deserve  his  definition  and  stigma  :  "an  independent 
man  is  a  man  you  can  never  depend  upon. ' '  To  defend 
the  policy  of  neglect,  to  retire  into  the  desert  or  the 
closet  of  prayer,  on  the  pretext  that  politics  are  wicked 
and  worldly,  is  a  base  denial  of  religion,  and  of  the  fun- 
damental law  of  Christ  that  his  followers  should  be 
leaven,  salt,  and  light  for  the  world.  It  is  a  good  man's 
duty  first  to  learn,  second  to  talk,  and  third  to  work  for 
his  country.  It  is  better  to  vote  in  error  than  not  to 
care  what  becomes  of  the  nation,  because  interest  will 
lead  to  intelligence,  while  mere  sulky  fault-finding  leads 
to  nothing. 

There  are  times,  especially  in  connection  with  local 
and  state  questions,  when  the  independent  voter  finds  it 
his  duty  to  part  company  with  his  party,  to  oppose  the 
nominations,  to  organize  effective  resistance  to  tricky, 
unfit,  and  unscrupulous  leaders.  This  simply  means 
another  form  of  party,  not  isolated  and  impractical 
action. 

The  questions  affecting  national  parties  have  little  or 
nothing  to  do  with  municipal  or  town  problems.  The 
tariff  question,  currency,  foreign  policies,  may  prop- 
erly divide  the  nation  into  parties,  but  they  have  no 
bearing  on  such  matters  as  street-cleaning,  supply  of 
water  and  light,  local  franchises  and  public  schools. 


Political  Reforms.  179 

For  the  election  of  city  officials  men  should  unit*  in 
entire  disregard  of  party  affiliations  in  order  to  secure 
the  most  perfect  administration  possible.  As  there  is 
little  hope  of  reaching  this  ideal  at  present,  leagues  of 
honest  voters  must  be  formed  to  fight  the  professional 
politicians  and  franchise  ' '  boodlers  ' '  at  every  point  by 
independent  nominations. 

The  patriotic  citizen  ought  to  be  alert,  vigilant,  and 
energetic  at  every  stage  of  a  campaign  :  in  the  discus- 
sion of  issues ;  in  the  local  committees  and  clubs  ;  in  vigilance  ail 

along  the  lin«. 

caucuses,  primaries,  and  circles  where  "slates"  are 
made  up  ;  in  town,  county,  state,  and  national  con- 
ventions. If  his  party  refuses  to  select  measures  and 
men  according  to  his  conviction  about  the  general 
good,  the  independent  voter  has  several  ways  open. 
He  can  assist  in  the  formation  of  a  new  party ;  or  he 
may  persist  in  efforts  within  his  party  to  influence  con- 
duct ;  or  he  may  join  others  in  securing  a  balance  of 
power  between  parties  and  in  casting  a  strong  vote  with 
the  best  candidates  available.  Circumstances  must 
determine  which  is,  on  the  whole,  the  wisest  course. 
' '  Going  to  the  polls ' '  or  even  ' '  going  to  the  primary ' ' 
is  not  the  whole  duty  of  a  good  citizen.  Even  the 
primary,  if  the  party  machine  controls  its  nominations, 
is  not  primary  but  secondary — a  mere  agency  for  giving 
popular  approval  and  endorsement  to  the  schemes  of 
men  who  plot  to  debauch  and  rob  the  public. 

Some  social  movements  must  be  carried  on  by  a  part 
of  the  people  :  civil  service  reform  is  a  vital  concern  of  civil  service 
all  the  people.  The  administration  of  national,  state, 
and  city  affairs  has  been  corrupted  and  perverted  by  the 
"spoils  system,"  and  the  people  have  been  robbed  and 
misgoverned  because  we  have  not  had  a  reasonable, 
fair,  and  sensible  method  of  appointing  public  officers. 


i8o  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

The  men  who  live  by  concocting  schemes  to  steal  from 
the  city  or  state  dread  nothing  more  than  the  civil 
service  reform.  Therefore  they  misrepresent  it,  ridicule 
it,  hate  it,  try  to  cripple  it. 

The  principles  of  the  civil  service  reform  are  simply 
principles  of  those  of  all  successful  private  business.  The  offices  of 
all  governments  should  be  filled  by  persons  who  have 
proved  their  fitness  for  the  particular  work,  and  no 
other  basis  of  choice  should  be  considered.  All  citizens, 
without  regard  to  party  or  sect,  should  be  eligible,  and 
none  should  be  excluded.  The  principle  of  merit 
carries  with  it  the  law  of  tenure  and  promotion.  No 
civil  officer — as  postal  clerk,  policeman,  school-teacher, 
superintendents  and  attendants  in  charity  institutions 
and  prisons — should  be  discharged  save  for  incompe- 
tency,  failure,  dishonesty,  or  neglect.  While  the  duties 
are  well  discharged  the  office  should  be  secure.  Re- 
fusal to  contribute  to  party  funds  or  to  take  part  in 
a  canvass  should  not  affect  tenure  of  office. 

Promotions  to  vacancies  should  be  according  to  merit 
and  preparation.  So  far  as  possible  there  should  be  an 
ascending  order  of  promotion  for  faithful  service,  so 
that  every  official  should  feel  at  the  beginning  that  there 
was  hope  of  advance  if  he  gave  himself  unreservedly  to 
his  work. 

An  appeal  signed  by  Mr.  Carl  Schurz  sets  forth  the 
common  interest  in  this  reform. 

A  poor  man  has  a  personal  interest  in  the  abolition  of  the 

The  poor  man's   spoils  system,  because  he  is  not  incompetent  in  consequence  of 

interest.  being  poor,  and  he  has  a  right  to  a  chance  for  appointment  if 

he  wishes  it ;   because  if  not  competent  himself,  his  son  or 

daughter,  educated  in  the  public  school,  may  readily  become 

so ;  because  the  spoils  system  wastes  the  public  money,  and 

the  poor  man  pays  his  full  share  of  taxes,  in  house  rent,  and 

food,  and  clothing,  and  everything  that  he  uses ;  because  it  is 


Political  Reforms.  181 

the  interest  of  every  citizen  that  the  business  of  the  government 
shall  be  honestly  managed;  because  the  politician  who  is  trying 
to  feather  his  own  nest  is  always  the  worst  enemy  of  the  citizen, 
while  pretending  to  be  his  friend,  and  the  abolition  of  the  spoils 
system  means  the  destruction  of  the  boss,  whose  power  rests 
on  the  distribution  of  offices  as  spoils ;  because  no  other  reform 
is  safe  or  can  ever  be  successfully  prosecuted  until  the  abolition 
of  the  spoils  system  has  been  secured. 

This  reform  is  necessary  in  order  to  enable  the  execu- 
tive officers,  presidents,  governors,  mayors,  to  give  time 
and  strength  to  their  duties.  The  mayor  of  a  certain  The  necessity 

for  civil  servic 

city  was  compelled  to  lock  himself  in  his  office  during  reform, 
business  hours  in  order  to  keep  off  the  swarm  of  office- 
beggars  who  besieged  his  door.  Public  business  is  im- 
peded or  paralyzed  by  this  pressure.  It  should  be  no 
part  of  the  work  of  an  incoming  executive  to  satisfy  the 
' '  claims ' '  of  low  ward  politicians  who  did  mean  work  in 
saloons  to  help  elect  him.  If  every  applicant  must  pass 
an  examination  and  then  take  his  place  according  to  his 
capacity,  the  crowd  of  office-seekers  would  be  smaller 
and  of  a  better  quality. 

Corruption  of   political   life  comes  largely  from  the 

,  .  ....  T  T    j  Misplaced 

power  or  executives  to  appoint  civil  servants.     Under  our  power  of 

...  ...  appointment. 

present  system  the  executive  is  almost  compelled  to  pay 
his  political  debts  with  appointments  to  office ;  and  the 
ground  of  his  selection  must  frequently  be  private  in- 
terest and  not  public  welfare.  Hence  we  have  militia 
officers  who  never  learned  the  manual  of  arms,  and 
heads  of  insane  asylums  who  get  mad  from  drink  ;  and 
teachers  in  public  schools  who  have  diplomas  from  igno- 
rant aldermen,  but  none  from  the  normal  school ;  and 
park  commissioners  who  never  heard  of  landscape  gar- 
dening ;  and  overseers  of  the  poor  who  have  not  im- 
agined there  ever  was  a  treatise  on  scientific  charity. 
This  state  of  things  disgraces  our  nation  in  the  eyes  of 


182 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


How  to  help. 


Municipal 
reform. 


the  civilized  world  ;  it  introduces  rascality,  wastefulness, 
and  inefficiency  into  our  municipal  administration  ;  it 
makes  further  extension  of  useful  state  and  municipal 
activity  seem  impossible.  The  civil  service  reform  is 
honored  and  recommended  by  the  character  of  the 
enemies  it  has  made.  All  scoundrels,  "ward-heelers," 
mean  drudges  of  unprincipled  leaders  hate  it.  Their 
hatred  is  a  high  and  deserved  compliment  and  an  excel- 
lent argument  for  all  good  Christians  to  fight  for  it. 

Individuals,  churches,  associations  can  assist  the  Na- 
tional League  by  small  contributions  of  money ;  by 
purchase  and  distribution  of  their  literature  ;  by  offering 
prizes  to  students  in  schools  and  colleges  for  able  dis- 
cussions of  the  subject ;  by  holding  conferences ;  by 
investigation  of  the  appointments  made  by  mayors, 
governors,  and  congressmen.  Gradually  the  principles 
of  civil  service  reform  have  made  the  way  in  nation, 
states,  and  cities,  and  in  many  public  institutions.  This 
progress  is  the  fruit  of  the  social  spirit ;  of  self-denying, 
high-minded,  intelligent,  and  courageous  agitation  and 
hard  work.  Advance  has  been  gained  in  spite  of  the 
combined  opposition  of  mercenary  office-seekers  in  both 
parties,  and  it  is  a  moral  triumph  which  should  encour- 
age every  good  citizen  who  is  engaged  in  difficult  social 
work. 

The  management  of  our  American  cities  is  thought  to 
be  the  weakest  point  in  our  government.  A  few  years 
ago  we  had  few  great  cities.  We  had  less  experience  in 
municipal  administration  than  older  countries  where 
cities  have  grown  quite  as  rapidly  as  with  us.  An 
agricultural  people  suddenly  confronted  the  difficult 
problems  of  building  large  towns  and  learning  to  live 
in  them.  Perhaps  the  worst  factor  was  a  general  feeling 
that  one  man  knew  as  much  as  another  about  streets, 


Political  Reforms.  183 

schools,  taxes,  finance,  sanitation,  and  the  thousand 
intricate  questions  of  a  great  municipal  business.  De- 
mocracy has  not  yet  become  enlightened  enough  to 
respect  the  specialist  and  the  expert.  The  simple  affairs 
of  a  village  or  a  rural  neighborhood  may  easily  and 
frequently  change  hands  without  serious  results.  But 
the  complicated  affairs  of  a  huge  manufacturing,  rail- 
road, and  commercial  town  demand  the  study  and 
experience  of  many  years. 

The  whole  difficulty  lies  in  one  point  :   how  to  get  the 
right  man  in  the  right  place  and  keep  him  there  so  long   Right  men  in 

the  right  places. 

as  he  does  the  work  well  and  responds  to  public  needs. 
The  following  suggestions  were  made  by  Mr.  Franklin 
Mac  Veagh,  and  may  serve  as  a  basis  for  discussion. 
The  mayor  of  a  city  should  be  independent,  with  full 
power  to  appoint  executive  officers  without  the  inter- 
ference of  the  council.  The  heads  of  departments  should 
not  be  boards  but  single,  responsible  men,  who  should 
answer  to  the  mayor  directly,  as  in  a  great  business 
house,  without  the  possibility  of  sharing  the  responsi- 
bility with  a  crowd.  The  powers  of  the  council  should 
be  limited  by  the  charter  to  legislation  within  legal 
bounds.  The  members  should  be  paid  reasonable  sal- 
aries "and  should  not  be  expected  to  steal  them." 
They  should  have  no  power  to  appoint  subordinate 
officers.  The  merit  system  should  control  the  selection 
of  all  employees  except  the  chiefs  of  departments  and 
their  private  secretaries. 

The  city  should  have  power  to  govern  itself — under  a 
charter  granted  by  a  general  incorporation  law  of  the   Liniitatioil 
state.     The  limits  of  taxation  should  be  fixed  by  the  ofcouncils- 
state  constitution  and  laws  so  that  councils  could  not 
ruin  and  bankrupt  the  municipalities  with  debts.     There 
should  be  a  constitutional  prohibition  of  special  legisla- 


1 84 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Electoral 
reform. 


The  Corrupt 
Practices  Acts. 


tion.  The  state  authorities  should  have  no  power  to 
impose  officials  on  a  city.  Reforms  in  election  methods 
must  accompany  and  supplement  these  measures.  Ulti- 
mately all  reforms  depend  upon  the  intelligence,  the 
vigilance,  the  devotion  of  the  citizens,  and  therefore 
popular  education  is  essential  to  good  local  government. 

It  may  be  questioned  whether  the  recent  tendency  to 
strip  city  councils  of  power  is  altogether  wise.  The 
representatives  of  the  people  must  be  trusted.  To  load 
the  mayor  with  responsibility  can  never  relieve  us  from 
the  necessity  of  electing  honest  and  capable  aldermen. 
It  is  here  that  the  chief  difficulties  lie. 

The  object  of  an  election  is  to  secure  an  expression 
of  the  real  wish  of  the  people.  Under  present  con- 
ditions it  is  notorious  that  a  clique  of  politicians,  ruled 
by  a  boss,  fortified  by  the  hope  of  office,  takes  posses- 
sion of  the  political  machinery  and  registers  their  will  in 
the  name  of  all  the  people.  So  powerful,  insidious, 
and  unscrupulous  have  these  gangs  of  politicians  be- 
come that  it  is  very  difficult  to  break  them  up  and 
defeat  them.  All  parties  come  into  their  hands,  and 
even  honest  statesmen  are  often  subjected  to  a  humili- 
ating and  compromising  alliance  with  degraded  and 
corrupt  villains.  A  brief  statement  will  be  made  of  the 
current  social  movements  to  circumvent  these  nefarious 
schemes  and  make  elections  the  genuine  expression  of 
the  popular  will.  It  is  assumed  that  no  improvement  in 
elections  can  be  of  great  value  unless  the  popular  choice 
is  itself  wise,  instructed,  and  honest. 

American  patriotism  is  willing  to  learn  of  our  English 
cousins,  and  they,  being  older,  have  some  things  to 
teach  us.  We  need  to  learn  how  to  secure  and  main- 
tain a  pure  and  free  ballot,  and  patriotism  in  a  land  of 
universal  suffrage  has  no  holier  task.  The  social  spirit 


Political  Reforms.  185 

is  moving  toward  this  reform,  and  is  calling  all  good 
citizens  in  all  the  states  to  assist.  The  temptations  to 
bribe  voters  are  constant  and  pressing,  and  the  forms  of 
bribery  are  numerous  and  subtle.  Civil  service  reform 
would  remove  some  of  the  prizes,  the  so-called 
' '  plums, ' '  which  reward  political  success,  but  there 
would  still  remain  powerful  incentives  to  purchase  votes, 
which  means  to  set  a  price  on  the  splendid  and  invalu- 
able right  of  an  American  citizen.  The  possession  of  an 
office  brings  social  consideration,  honor,  and  sometimes 
a  chance  to  plunder  the  dear  public.  It  frequently  en- 
ables a  man  to  control  the  actions  of  inferior  officials. 
Success  of  a  party  in  some  campaigns  brings  with  it 
financial  advantage  in  connection  with  tariff  legislation. 
Hence  employers  are  tempted  to  bring  pressure  to  bear 
on  their  employees  to  vote  with  them  ;  often  with  the 
sincere  belief  that  their  interests  are  common.  Men  of 
highest  character  are  sometimes  led  to  purchase  votes, 
or  wink  at  the  act  in  others,  when  they  see  that  a  large 
body  of  ignorant  and  venal  voters  can  be  secured  for  the 
right  side  in  no  other  way.  The  dangers  from  the 
southern  negro  and  from. the  raw  immigrant  of  the 
North  are  akin. 

Plausible  as  are  the  apologies  for  buying  votes,  all 
clear-minded  men  must  see  that  it  is  shameful,  humilia- 
ting, and  degrading.  No  body  of  people  can  long 
engage  in  such  practices  without  deep  moral  stain. 
England  has  succeeded  better  than  any  other  country 
in  reducing  bribery  to  a  minimum.  Professor  J.  W. 
Jenks  reported  that  he  found  "still  a  very  little  brib- 
ery ;  a  little  persecution ;  more,  but  still  not  very 
much  treating ;  some  coercion  by  employers,  some  by 
priests  ;  a  good  deal  of  trickery  and  misrepresentation 
that  is  mean  but  very  natural,"  and  some  indirect  cor- 


1 86 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


The  Australian 
ballot. 


Referendum. 


ruption  ;  but  on  the  whole  he  found  the  elections  pure. 

When  the  candidates  are  compelled  to  make  out 
a  sworn  and  itemized  list  of  election  expenses  ;  when  the 
law  punishes  with  disfranchisement,  imprisonment,  and 
heavy  costs  all  acceptance  or  offers  of  bribes  ;  and 
liquor  is  kept  at  a  distance  ;  and  public  opinion  sustains 
the  law,  bribery  can  be  reduced  to  a  very  inconsiderable 
amount.  Several  states  have  already  passed  such  laws, 
and  the  task  now  is  to  extend  them  to  all  the  states  and 
enforce  them  with  vigor. 

The  new  ballot-system  has  for  its  purpose  the  sup- 
pression of  intimidation  and  bribery  at  elections.  ' '  The 
ballots  are  printed  by  the  state,  and  contain  the  names 
of  all  the  candidates  of  all  the  parties.  Against  the 
name  of  each  candidate  the  party  to  which  he  belongs  is 
designated,  and  against  each  name  there  is  a  small 
vacant  space  to  be  filled  with  a  cross.  At  the  polling- 
place  the  ballots  are  kept  in  an  inclosure  behind  a  rail- 
ing, and  no  ballot  can  be  brought  outside  under  penalty 
of  fine  or  imprisonment"  (J.  Fiske).  The  voting  is 
absolutely  secret  and  the  voter  is  free  from  all  pressure 
upon  his  independent  judgment.  It  is  beautiful  to  note 
how  the  impertinent  and  corrupt  crowd  which  once 
haunted  the  voters  has  melted  away  under  the  action 
of  this  law. 

It  may  fairly  be  claimed  that  the  movement  to  refer 
all  essential  issues  to  a  direct  vote  is  growing  popular  in 
the  United  States.  A  democracy  is  frequently  thwarted 
in  its  purposes  by  combinations  among  its  own  elected 
representatives.  Laws  carried  by  a  small  majority  in 
the  legislature  have  often  been  contrary  to  the  actual 
will  of  the  majority.  The  referendum  is  a  means  of 
giving  direct  expression  to  the  will  of  the  voters.  State 
constitutions  are  thus  amended.  Critical  and  vexed 


Political  Reforms.  187 

questions  about  taxation,  control  of  the  liquor  traffic, 
important  increase  of  debts  for  improvement  are  finally 
determined  by  submission  to  a  popular  vote.  Measures 
thus  decided  are  less  likely  to  be  causes  of  disturbance. 
The  issue  is  disentangled  from  all  foreign  matter  and 
discussed  in  a  large  way,  free  from  personal  and  partisan 
considerations.  As  Mr.  Lecky  says,  ' '  Democracy  has 
been  crowned  king.  The  voice  of  the  multitude  is  the 
ultimate  court  of  appeal."  If  the  people  err  in  judg- 
ment they  must  learn  better  by  bitter  experience,  and 
the  earlier  they  can  put  their  theory  to  the  test  the 
sooner  they  will  learn  their  lesson. 

The  referendum  enables  the  people  to  check  the 
legislature  after  it  has  acted.  But  Switzerland  has  con-  initiative, 
structed  political  machinery  by  which  any  large  constit- 
uency can  bring  a  measure  to  the  attention  of  the 
legislature  and  so  to  decision.  The  democratic  princi- 
ple here  finds  its  most  distinct  expression.  That  which 
is  accomplished  indirectly  by  newspaper  discussion, 
popular  agitation,  resolutions  by  societies,  congresses, 
and  party  platforms  is,  by  the  initiative,  made  the  im- 
mediate issue  before  the  community  of  voters,  in  a 
concise  and  legal  form  demanding  attention. 

Majorities  are  often  despotic  and  merciless.     Some- 

.  .  .          .  ...  Proportional 

times  they  are  ignorant  and  unjust.  Victory  means  representation, 
trampling  the  unsuccessful  minority  under  foot,  and  the 
minority  has  rights  and  may  have  superior  wisdom  and 
worth.  Republican  government  ought  not  to  mean 
a  new  kind  of  tyranny.  There  is  nothing  in  a  majority 
worthy  of  worship.  The  ideal  of  a  just  government 
is  the  welfare  of  man,  woman,  and  child,  whether  their 
votes  count  or  not.  The  aim  of  "proportional  repre- 
sentation "  is  to  secure  in  legislative  halls  a  hearing  for 
the  minority,  and  for  every  considerable  body  of  citizens 


1 88 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Evils  illus- 
trated. 


Advantage*. 


who  have  common  convictions  and  interests.  Indeed 
majority  rule  often  means  merely  the  rule  of  the  "ring" 
which  leads  the  majority  by  the  nose. 

Professor  Commons  illustrates  the  injustice  of  the 
present  system.  In  1894  "the  total  vote  cast  for  con- 
gressmen was  11,288,135.  Of  this  number  the  Repub- 
licans cast  5,461,202;  the  Democrats,  4,295,748;  the 
Populists,  1,323,644;  the  Prohibitionists,  182,679;  and 
24,862  scattering.  The  result  was  the  election  of  245  Re- 
publican, 104  Democrat,  and  7  Populist  congressmen." 
The  Prohibitionists,  though  they  constituted  a  large  part 
of  the  population,  had  not  a  single  representative  to 
voice  their  convictions  in  legislative  halls,  and  the  Pop- 
ulists with  11.7  per  cent  of  the  votes  secured  only  2  per 
cent  of  the  congressmen.  In  some  elections  the  other 
party  has  had  the  extreme  advantage,  but  in  no  election 
is  there  a  fair  representation  of  the  various  interests  of 
the  nation.  In  1892  Tammany  Hall,  with  59  per  cent 
of  the  votes,  elected  every  one  of  the  thirty  aldermen. 
The  corrupt  machine,  under  such  conditions,  can  con- 
trol the  election  undisturbed  by  the  helpless  independent 
votes.  Sometimes  the  great  corporations  get  possession 
of  the  bosses  on  both  sides,  and  then  the  whole  state 
legislature  is  in  their  grasp. 

Proportional  representation  carries  with  it  the  right 
and  power  of  any  respectable  number  or  class  of  citizens, 
even  if  a  majority  is  against  them,  to  send  legislators  to 
the  law-making  bodies  of  the  commonwealth  or  city  to 
present  their  views,  to  urge  their  rights,  and  to  check 
the  arbitrary  and  tyrannical  action  of  those  who  chance 
to  be  in  power.  If  this  plan  was  employed  in  electing 
city  councils  on  general  tickets,  instead  of  ward  tickets, 
it  would  enable  reform  parties  to  consolidate  their 
strength,  secure  more  competent  representatives,  and 


Political  Reforms.  189 

resist  the  corrupt  organizations  which  now  rule  our 
cities.  It  \vould  compel  the  party  leaders  to  offer  a 
higher  class  of  men  as  candidates.  It  would  induce 
honest  men  of  ability,  business  men,  wage-earners,  and 
professional  men  to  stand  for  election,  since  they  would 
not  be  compelled  to  secure  office  by  the  degrading 
methods  now  so  common. 

A  radical  reform  would  still  further  encourage  busy 

...  j      1        i  Legalized 

citizens  to  go  to  the  primaries  and  the  best  men  to  primary, 
accept  office — the  abolition  of  the  caucus  and  convention 
and  the  substitution  of  a  legalized  primary.  There 
should  be  in  every  state  legal  provision  for  the  nomi- 
nation of  any  candidate  on  the  petition  of  a  respectable 
number  of  voters  in  a  party.  Under  the  present  order 
it  is  usually  a  waste  of  time  to  go  to  the  primary  unless 
one  is  an  expert  politician,  and  the  consciousness  of  dis- 
appointment it  is  which  prevents  honest  citizens  from 
going  to  the  place  of  nomination.  Give  them  a  fair 
chance  to  be  on  equal  terms  with  tricksters  and  they 
will  be  glad  to  perform  their  duty.  Give  the  inde- 
pendents power  to  place  their  own  candidates  on  the 
ballot  in  as  favorable  a  place  as  those  of  the  professional 
ring  and  all  dark  and  selfish  schemes  will  come  to 
naught. 
Well  does  Mr.  Fiske  say  : 

Popular  government  makes  many  mistakes,  and  sometimes 
it  is  slow  in  finding  them  out ;  but  when  once  it  has  discovered   optimum 
them  it  has  a  way  of  correcting  them.     It  is  the  best  kind  of 
government  in  the  world,  the  most  wisely  conservative,  the 
most  steadily  progressive,  and  the  most  likely  to  endure. 

But  our  earnest  must  not  slacken 

Into  play ; 
Men  of  thought  and  men  of  action, 

Clear  the  way. 


190  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

Fortunately  for  national   life   no  governmental   ma- 
justice  not         chinery  can  be  invented  which  will,  once  wound  up,  run 

Hutomatic.  * 

automatically  without  intelligent  supervision,  devoted 
interest,  self-sacrificing  patriotism.  The  corrupt  ward 
politician  performs  a  useful  function,  though  in  a  dis- 
creditable way,  when  he  irritates  the  business  com- 
munity into  paying  some  attention  to  the  working  of 
this  divine  institution  of  democratic  self-government. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THE  SOCIAL  SPIRIT  IN  THE  STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 

It  is  a  work  of  charity,  and  charity  is  the  work  of  heaven— 
nay,  it  is  the  highest  and  noblest  charity,  for  he  that  teacheth  £orkteacher  s 
another  gives  alms  to  his  soul ;  he  clothes  the  nakedness  of  his 
understanding,  and  relieves  the  wants  of  his  impoverished 
reason.  He  indeed  who  governs  well,  leads  the  blind ;  but  he 
that  teaches,  gives  him  eyes.  .  .  .  Doctrine  is  that  which 
must  prepare  men  for  discipline ;  and  men  never  go  so  cheer- 
fully as  when  they  see  where  they  go. — R.  South,  Sermons. 

OUR  purpose  in  these  pages  is  to  show  the  good 
citizen  how  he  can  best  work  for  the  common- 
wealth. There  are  social  services  which  all  are  bound 
to  perform  and  which  do  not  demand  professional  train- 
ing. Treatises  on  pedagogy  must  be  consulted  by  the 
teacher  for  direction  in  the  technical  processes  of  his 
calling.  But  in  a  democratic  country,  whether  we  like 
it  or  not,  the  quality  of  the  schools  will  depend  very 
greatly  on  the  cooperation  of  the  people.  Let  us  in 
this  chapter  give  attention  to  some  of  the  ways  in  which 
intelligent  citizens  are  assisting  the  school  authorities, 
and  to  the  measures  which  require  very  general  interest 
and  devotion.  Many  parents  would  be  glad  to  take 
part  in  the  movement  for  better  schools  if  they  realized 
how  much  they  were  needed,  and  if  they  saw  any  prac- 
tical method  of  effort. 

"You  will  hear  every  day,"  said  Emerson,  "the 
maxims  of  low  prudence.  You  will  hear  that  the  first 
duty  is  to  get  land  and  money,  place  and  name. 
•What  is  this  truth  you  seek?  What  is  this  beauty?' 

191 


192 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Function  of 
the  school. 


Democracy 
and  schools. 


men  will  ask  with  derision.  If,  nevertheless,  God  have 
called  any  of  you  to  explore  truth  and  beauty,  be  bold, 
be  firm,  be  true.  When  you  shall  say,  'As  others  do, 
so  will  I.  I  renounce,  I  am  sorry  for  it,  my  early 
visions ;  I  must  eat  the  good  of  the  land,  and  let  learn- 
ing and  romantic  expectations  go  until  a  more  con- 
venient season ' ;  then  dies  the  man  in  you  ;  then  once 
more  perish  the  bonds  of  art  and  poetry  and  science,  as 
they  died  already  in  a  thousand  thousand  men."  Thus 
does  our  great  ethical  inspirer  and  prophet  call  the 
leaders  of  a  nation  to  unite  firmly  to  promote  the  higher 
elements  of  popular  welfare. 

The  school  system  is  that  social  institution  by  which 
the  entire  people  consciously  and  of  set  purpose  seeks 
to  transmit  its  knowledge  and  its  higher  ideals  to  the 
next  generation.  The  people  of  the  United  States, 
without  murmuring  or  protest,  have  rapidly  set  apart  a 
larger  and  larger  portion  of  their  growing  wealth  to 
these  exalted  ends. 

Amiel,  a  delicate  and  timid  spirit,  feared  that  all  fine 
things  would  disappear  with  the  leveling  processes  of  a 
commonplace  democracy.  And  many  refined  souls 
share  his  anxieties.  We  who  believe  in  the  future  of 
democracy  may  do  well  to  listen  to  these  forebodings  of 
gloomy  prophets  in  order  to  prevent  the  fulfillment  of 
the  dark  anticipations.  "The  age  of  great  men  is 
going  ;  the  epoch  of  the  ant-hills,  of  life  in  multiplicity, 
is  beginning.  The  century  of  individualism,  of  abstract 
equality  triumphs,  runs  a  great  risk  of  seeing  no  more 
true  individuals.  By  continual  leveling  and  division  of 
labor,  society  will  become  everything  and  man  nothing. 

' '  As  the  floor  of  valleys  is  raised  by  the  denudation 
and  washing  down  of  the  mountains,  what  is  average 
will  rise  at  the  expense  of  what  is  great.  The  excep- 


The  Social  Spirit  in  the  State  School  System.      1 93 

tional  will  disappear.  .  .  .  The  statistician  will 
register  a  growing  progress,  and  the  moralist  a  gradual 
decline  :  on  the  one  hand,  a  progress  in  things  ;  on  the 
other,  a  decline  of  souls.  The  useful  will  take  the 
place  of  the  beautiful,  industry  of  art,  political  economy 
of  religion,  and  arithmetic  of  poetry."  But  this  de- 
lightful writer  does  not  regard  this  tendency  as  final, 
and  he  thinks  a  craving  for  spiritual  good  will  appear 
after  the  animal  hunger  is  satisfied.  There  will  "arise 
a  new  kingdom  of  mind,  a  church  of  refuge,  a  republic 
of  souls,  in  which,  far  beyond  the  region  of  mere  right 
and  sordid  activity,  beauty,  devotion,  holiness,  heroism, 
enthusiasm,  the  extraordinary,  the  infinite,  shall  have  a 
worship  and  an  abiding  city."  But  this  can  never  be 
unless  the  people  provide  liberally  for  the  means  of 
culture. 

In  the  Report  on  Secondary  Education,  presented  by  The  aeuument 
the  Royal  Commission  of  England  by  Assistant  Com- 
missioner  J.  J.  Findlay,  we  find  the  following  testimony : 

The  contrast  between  ourselves  in  England  as  a  people  and 
the  English  race  in  America  across  the  ocean  lies  mainly  here, 
that  in  the  most  progressive  states  of  America  the  people 
believe  in  education,  and  are  willing  to  make  sacrifices  for  the 
sake  of  their  creed.  Outside  of  the  scheme  of  public  educa- 
tion, we  have  presented  in  the  United  States  an  almost 
prodigal  liberality  in  the  establishment  and  support  of  private 
educational  enterprises.  On  every  hand  colleges  and  universi- 
ties and  technical  institutes  are  bountifully  supplied  with  the 
gifts  of  rich  men,  and  it  is  evident  that  this  stream  of  wealth  is 
the  result  of  a  national  sentiment  in  favor  of  education.  We 
have  no  parallel  to  this  generosity  either  in  England  or  in  any 
other  country. 

President  Garfield  voices  the  best  convictions  of  true 
Americans  in  his  words  : 

There  is  no  horizontal  stratification  of  society  in  this  country 


194 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


The  school 
unknown  to 
citizens. 


Pride  in  our 
svstem. 


like  the  rocks  in  the  earth,  that  hold  one  class  down  below 
forevermore,  and  let  another  come  to  the  surface  and  stay 
there  forever.  Our  stratification  is  like  the  ocean,  where  every 
individual  drop  is  free  to  move,  and  where  from  the  sternest 
depths  of  the  mighty  deep  any  drop  may  come  up  to  glitter  on 
the  highest  wave  that  rolls.  .  .  .  We  confront  the  dangers 
of  suffrage  by  the  blessings  of  universal  education. 

The  schoolhouse  to  the  average  citizen  seems  almost 
as  impenetrable  as  the  French  Bastille.  He  knows  it  is 
entirely  harmless  and  that  there  is  no  legal  obstacle  to 
his  entrance.  But  he  fears  to  disturb  the  classes  and 
teachers  ;  he  is  busy  about  his  own  occupation  ;  and  he 
is  afraid  to  expose  his  ignorance  of  many  forgotten  ele- 
ments by  asking  questions.  Therefore  the  average  citi- 
zen passes  the  schoolhouse  without  much  thought, 
unless  the  principal  sends  for  him  or  punishes  his  pet 
bad  boy.  Still  we  are  all  proud  of  our  free  public 
schools,  and  are  seldom  disturbed  in  our  placid  dream 
of  complacent  contentment  by  stories  of  schools  in  the 
lands  of  Pestalozzi  and  Froebel.  Indeed,  we  have  im- 
ported and  naturalized  so  many  German  ideas  and  living 
teachers,  and  even  teach  the  language  of  Germany  to 
such  an  extent,  that  we  are  acquiring  a  fine  fruit  from  a 
Teutonic  graft  on  a  rude  but  healthy  American  stock. 
We  are  very  sensitive  to  any  attack  on  this  institution, 
to  open  criticism,  covert  insinuation,  or  distant  sugges- 
tion of  dividing  school  funds  among  the  sects.  An 
assault  on  the  school  system,  with  the  stars  and  stripes 
floating  over  its  buildings,  is  with  us  high  treason. 

Most  of  us  know  all  too  little  of  what  is  going  on 
inside  those  walls  where  our  children  spend  so  many 
bright  days  of  youth.  It  seems  the  affair  of  boards, 
normal  schools,  principals,  and  teachers.  Our  people 
feel  incompetent  to  deal  with  the  theory  and  practice  of 
instruction  and  discipline  ;  and  only  occasionally  does 


The  Social  Spirit  in  the  State  School  System.      195 

one  ascend  the  chair  of  the  infallible  and  dogmatic 
anonymous  correspondent.  Very  much  of  popular  dis- 
cussion is  of  these  two  irrational,  extreme  types,  confi- 
dent abuse  or  timid  questioning. 

It  must  be  apparent  that  there  is  a  close  connection 
between  the  home  and  the  school  which  demands  a  Home  and 

school. 

clear  and  friendly  understanding.  The  primary  teacher 
is  merely  the  mother's  assistant.  The  family  is  the  real 
primary  school  and,  for  weal  or  woe,  the  mother  is  the 
first  teacher.  And  then  the  school  is  educating  children 
to  live  in  society  ;  imparting  to  them  the  knowledge 
which  they  will  need  to  fit  them  to  move  in  the  great 
world's  life  ;  training  them  in  the  habits  of  regularity, 
punctuality,  neatness,  order,  courtesy,  honesty,  obedi- 
ence, cooperation  which  will  fit  them  to  be  valuable  and 
happy  citizens. 

Divorce  or  any  serious  isolation  of  school  from  gen- 
eral society  is,  therefore,  injurious  and  dangerous.  And  djvorce°f 
it  becomes  a  serious  question  by  what  means  and  to 
what  extent  the  non -professional  public  can,  without  an- 
noyance and  disturbance,  be  helpful  to  the  school. 
Remember  that  the  representatives  of  democracy  hold 
the  purse  ;  that  elected  councilmen,  boards  of  education, 
and  legislators  control  school  policies  ;  that  they  reflect 
the  convictions  of  their  constituents  ;  that  expert  educa- 
tors cannot  go  faster  than  they  are  permitted  to  go 
by  public  opinion  ;  and  it  will  be  seen  that  all  citizens 
must  either  help  or  hinder  the  system  of  education. 

Dr.  Broadus's  homely  story  brings  home  to  us  the 
necessity  in  a  republic  of  giving  moral  discipline  to  our 
political  masters:  "I'll  bet  you  five  dollars  on  the 
gray  horse,"  said  a  man,  "and  Squire  Thornton  shall 
hold  the  stakes."  "  And  who  will  hold  Squire  Thorn- 
ton ?  "  said  the  other.  It  is  the  old  query,  "Who  shall 


196 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


The  public 
school  and  its 
present  work. 


Financial 
importance. 


watch  the  guardians?"  Our  journalists,  statesmen, 
legislators,  financiers  are  our  masters,  and  our  schools 
form  them.  We  must  educate  our  masters. 

From  the  report  of  Hon.  W.  T.  Harris,  commissioner 
of  education,  1894-5,  we  learn  the  vast  interest  of  the 
nation  in  common  schools,  as  measured  by  property,  in- 
come, teachers,  and  pupils.  The  entire  population  was 
estimated  to  be  68,748,950.  The  persons  of  school  age 
(five  to  eighteen  years)  was  20,328,147,  the  number 
enrolled  as  pupils  14,201,752,  to  whom  maybe  added 
all  who  were  in  private  and  parochial  schools.  The 
total  number  of  pupils  and  students  of  all  grades  in  both 
public  and  private  schools  is  estimated  at  15,688,622. 
The  entire  population  is  receiving  an  average  of  4^ 
years  of  200  days  each.  Massachusetts  gives  8.04  years 
per  inhabitant.  The  people  of  the  German  Empire 
receive  7.2  years  of  200  days  each.  The  average  for 
the  United  States  is  steadily  rising.  The  South  is  ad- 
vancing in  a  most  encouraging  way.  The  average 
amount  of  schooling  given  in  the  South  Atlantic  Divi- 
sion in  1870  was  i. 20  years,  while  in  1895  it  had  risen 
to  2.85  years.  The  whole  number  of  public  school- 
teachers is  396,327,  of  whom  32.4  per  cent  are  male. 
The  average  monthly  wages  are  $46. 82  for  male  teachers 
and  $39.41  for  female  teachers.  There  are  237,416 
schoolhouses,  and  school  property  is  worth  $439,071,- 
690.  The  income  is  $177,597,691,  of  which  85.7  per 
cent  is  from  state  and  local  taxes.  The  average  expend- 
iture per  capita  of  population  is  $2.59,  in  addition  to 
all  that  is  expended  upon  private  schools  of  all  grades. 
The  financial  aspect  of  the  system  is  important  enough 
to  command  the  attention  of  every  taxpayer.  The  ex- 
penditures are  already  immense  and  they  are  certain  to 
increase. 


The  Social  Spirit  in  the  State  School  System.      197 

In  our  cities  there  is  a  marked  tendency  among  rich 
people  to  send  their  children  to  private  and  ' '  select ' ' 
schools.  They  claim  that  the  teaching  in  the  public  sch°ols 
schools  is  inferior  ;  that  the  rooms  are  crowded  ;  that 
the  manners  of  the  pupils  are  rude.  Let  us  grant  that 
there  is  a  measure  of  truth  in  these  charges.  Let  us 
give  no  undue  emphasis  to  the  counter-charge  that 
there  is  among  us  the  beginnings  of  a  class  spirit,  an 
aristocracy,  and  that  "select"  schools  are  patronized 
by  those  who  wish  to  keep  their  children  afar  from  the 
common  herd,  and  form  them  to  become  the  imitators 
and  lackeys  of  the  rich. 

Mr.   Robert  Grant,   in  his  "Art  of  Living,"  brings  , 

Moral  inilu 

out  a  phase  of  the  problem  too  often  overlooked.  «nces. 

Excellent  as  many  of  our  private  schools  are,  it  is  doubtful 
if  either  the  morals  are  better,  or  the  liability  to  disease  is  less, 
among  the  children  who  attend  them  than  at  a  public  school  of 
the  best  class.  To  begin  with,  the  private  schools  in  our  cities 
are  eagerly  patronized  by  that  not  inconsiderable  class  of 
parents  who  hope  or  imagine  that  the  social  position  of  their 
children  is  to  be  established  by  association  with  the  children  of 
influential  people.  Falsehood,  meanness,  and  unworthy  am- 
bitions are  quite  as  dangerous  to  character  when  the  little  man 
who  suggests  them  has  no  patches  on  his  breeches  as  when  he 
has,  and  unfortunately  there  are  no  outward  signs  on  the  moral 
nature,  like  holes  in  trousers,  to  serve  as  danger  signals  to  our 
darlings. 

Let  us  not  question  the  legal  and  moral  right  of  a 
parent  to  give  his  child  the  best  opportunities  he  can 
afford,  and  the  kind  of  an  education  which  he  believes 
most  suitable.  Surely  the  father  is  under  no  obligation 
to  sacrifice  his  own  child  to  an  institution,  even  if  it  be  a 
national  institution.  The  nation  has  no  right  to  require 
such  a  sacrifice. 

But  if  those  who  are  rich  can  afford  to  give  their 


198  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

children  costly  opportunities  the  people  generally  can- 
not do  so.  The  foundation  of  national  education  cannot 
be  laid  in  private  and  parochial  schools.  If  our  common 
schools  are  really  so  inferior  the  duty  of  all  is  to  bring 
them  to  a  higher  grade,  to  provide  them  with  the  best 
facilities. 

The  danger  from  private  schools  is  that  their  patrons 
Danger  from       wju  be  alienated  from  the  common  schools  and  come  to 

private  schools. 

regard  the  school  tax  as  an  injustice.  ' '  Why  should 
we  be  taxed  to  educate  the  children  of  other  men?" 
This  is  the  question  so  ominous  of  danger.  It  comes 
from  the  egoistic,  atomistic,  individualistic  theory  of 
society.  The  children  of  the  poor  are  our  children. 
They  also  are  members  of  the  same  community.  Their 
labors  help  to  create  wealth  in  which  all  share. 
Their  character  is  the  character  of  society.  Their  votes 
will  ultimately  decide  all  political  fortunes. 

The  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  warned  against  those  great 
English  schools  which  some  of  the  wealthy  people  of 
America  are  patronizing  or  seeking  to  copy.  He  said 
that  they  made  admirable  gentlemen  and  finished 
scholars,  but  did  not  prepare  men  for  the  life  of  our 
age.  ' '  We  must  have  nobler,  deeper,  and  sterner 
stuff ;  less  of  refinement  and  more  of  truth  ;  .  .  .  a 
contempt  for  ridicule,  not  a  dread  of  it."  The  great 
philanthropist  may  have  spoken  too  bitterly  against 
Eton  and  similar  institutions,  for  certainly  they  have 
sent  out  many  noble  servants  of  humanity.  But  such 
schools  ought  not  to  be  built  up  at  the  expense  of 
the  free  high  schools  of  the  democracy.  And  there  is 
always  a  real  danger  at  this  point. 

Citizens  have  it  in  their  power  to  assist  the  public 

£flSuenceS  °*       schools  and  their  administrators  by  sympathetic  study  of 

education,  by  listening  intelligently  to  the  expert  leaders 


The  Social  Spirit  in  the  State  School  System.     199 

of  schools,  by  generous  financial  support,  by  activity  in 
promoting  improvements.  It  is  possible  to  build  up  a 
consensus  of  opinion  in  the  country  which  will  represent 
a  high  average  of  conservative  judgment  and  which  will 
make  progress  certain  and  constant. 

Public  opinion  should  require  that  the  buildings  which 
represent  the  public  taste,  and  are  the  homes  of  fourteen 
millions  of  pupils  and  four  hundred  thousand  teachers, 
two  hundred  days  in  the  year,  should  be  so  constructed 
as  to  favor  the  health,  the  refinement,  and  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  coming  generation.  Of  school  hygiene  we 
have  already  spoken.  Its  importance  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. 

If  the  people  are  to  be  redeemed  from  coarse,  rude 
ways  and  are  to  rise  to  the  appreciation,  enjoyment,  and 
creation  of  beautiful  things,  then  the  forms  of  art  must 
be  set  before  them  when  they  are  young.  Miss  Starr,  of 
Hull  House,  who  is  doing  so  much  to 'bring  fine  things 
into  schoolrooms,  thus  illustrates  the  necessity  for  bring- 
ing beautiful  objects  into  a  child's  life  : 

Two  small  girls  who  were  going  to  one  of  our  Hull  House 
nicnics  were  crossing  the  bridge  over  the  Chicago  River.  "  1 
hate  rivers;  don't  you?"  one  of  them  said,  and  the  other 
answered,  "  Yes,  they  smell  so  awful  bad."  Now  that  is  what 
the  absence  of  beautiful  sights  and  sounds  did  for  those  chil- 
dren. You  could  never  make  them  see  a  river  as  anything 
better  than  bad  smell,  because  purling  brooks  and  pebbly  bot- 
toms and  green  banks  meant  nothing  to  their  minds. 

Many  teachers  are  trying  with  limited  means  to  adorn 
the  assembly  halls  and  places  of  recitation.  One  will 
frequently  see  a  home-like  curtain  at  the  window,  a  pot 
of  flowers  on  the  sill,  some  colored  chalk  drawings  on 
the  board. 

Societies  are  formed  in  some  cities  for  the  purpose  of 


aoo  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

beautifying  the  walls  of  schoolrooms.  Photographs  of 
famous  pictures,  plaster  casts  of  classic  sculpture,  sup- 
plied at  moderate  cost  but  excellent  of  their  kind, 
are  placed  before  the  eyes  of  youth  and  left  to  plead  the 
cause  of  an  aesthetic  perfection.  The  color  and  decora- 
tions of  the  walls  and  ceiling  are  made  to  conform  to  the 
canons  of  good  taste,  and  children  carry  back  into  their 
homes  standards  of  beauty.  There  is  a  general  move- 
ment to  make  the  grounds  about  the  buildings  beautiful 
with  sward,  flowers,  and  suitable  play-grounds. 

From   appreciation  we   pass  to  creation.     To  many 
An  in  the           minds   the   introduction   of    drawing   into   the  schools 

course  of  study.  . 

seems  a  piece  of  foolish  extravagance.  And  yet  its 
value  ought  to  be  obvious.  Every  one  can  learn  to 
draw  well  enough  to  add  a  new  power  of  expression  to 
the  written  or  spoken  word,  while  the  practice  of  draw- 
ing fits  one  for  the  finer  processes  of  mechanical  arts, 
gives  a  power  of  criticism  and  pleasure  in  the  presence 
of  pictures,  and  awakens  and  discovers  the  latent  genius 
of  genuine  artists  who  are  scattered  throughout  the 
country.  European  countries  have  introduced  art 
studies  partly  in  order  to  hold  the  markets  for  manufac- 
tured goods.  The  Educational  Committee  of  the  Wom- 
en's Industrial  Council  of  London  discovered  that 
French  artificial  flower-makers  were  better  paid  than 
An  in  industry.  ^  Engiisn  an(j  na(j  a  surer  market  even  in  England. 

The  cause  was  sought  and  found  in  the  Ecole  Profes- 
sionelle  of  Paris,  in  which  pupils  are  thoroughly  trained 
in  drawing  and  design,  and  become  competent  to  make 
entire  flowers.  In  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  metal 
work,  textile  fabrics,  upholstery,  stone-work,  mere 
crude  handwork  is  displaced  by  machinery.  But  if 
artistic  skill  and  taste  are  added  the  product  earns 
for  the  workmen  a  superior  reward. 


The  Social  Spirit  in  the  State  School  System.      201 

The  final  cause  of  education  is  not  mere  industrial 
efficiency,  but  that  for  which  mechanical  skill  is  itself 
a  means,  namely,  the  production  of  a  complete  and 
happy  life.  Dr.  James  MacAlister's  words  express  the 
higher  truth  :  ' '  While  we  are  extending  our  system  of 
education  on  the  utilitarian  side,  we  must  not  forget 
that  the  right  enjoyment  of  life — that  is,  the  exercise  of 
the  higher  faculties — is  as  much  a  function  of  living  as 
earning  one's  daily  bread  ;  and  for  our  education  to  be 
useful  in  the  true  sense  of  the  term,  we  cannot  ignore 
the  training  of  the  aesthetic  faculties  as  much  for  moral 
as  for  practical  ends."  It  is  because  the  public  in 
America  is  so  slow  to  realize  the  larger  meaning  of  ed- 
ucation, and  has  had  so  imperfect  a  training  in  art,  that 
it  is  so  difficult  to  introduce  and  foster  this  branch  of 
culture.  But  there  are  numerous  signs  of  a  better  day. 

If  we  are  to  provoke  a  revulsion  against  untidy 
streets,  hideous  alleys,  tumble-down  houses,  ugly  and 
weedy  spaces,  repulsive  garbage-heaps,  offensive  adver- 
tisements of  black  and  yellow  on  barns,  dead  walls,  and 
mountain  sides,  and  other  sins  against  human  perfec- 
tion, we  must  make  our  schoolrooms  teachers  of  beauty. 

And  far  above  these  gross  abuses  the  finer  natures 
among  us  have  entertained  visions  of  a  complete  life, 
full  of  noble  sentiment,  instructed  in  the  laws  of  the 
universe,  reverent  toward  the  infinite  goodness  and 
holiness.  Such  a  life  perfected  is  an  aesthetic  product 
on  which  all  rightly  constituted  minds  can  gaze  with 
complacency.  To  that  perfected  and  beautiful  life  the 
common  schools  may  offer  a  most  essential  contribution. 

In  a  former  place  we  have  insisted  on  the  fact  that  the  „ 

School  and 

family  is  itself  the  first  and  most  important  of  all  schools,    home. 
Dr.  Dike's  report  for  1896  emphasizes  this  point  with 
fresh  illustrations. 


2O2  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

The  rapidly-increasing  interest  in  child  study  and  the  incor- 
Eariy  intiu-  poration  of  the  kindergarten  into  the  public-school  system 
can  hardly  fail  to  accelerate  this  movement  back  to  the  home  ; 
for  the  demand  for  the  kindergarten  rests  largely  on  the 
recognized  educational  importance  of  the  years  immediately 
preceding  the  former  school  age.  But  child  study  is  now 
pushing  us  still  farther  back.  The  years  before  the  kinder- 
garten age  are  seen  to  be  immensely  potent  in  education. 
The  prenatal  life  of  the  child,  its  ancestral  inheritance,  and  all 
the  supplementary  life  of  the  home  and  the  hours  of  play  out- 
side school,  are  coming  into  view  as  being  full  of  educational 
meaning. 

This  is  profoundly  true.  And  the  inference  is  natural : 
the  trained  professional  teachers  must  be  pioneers  in  the 
social  function  of  preparing  parents  for  their  educa- 
tional duties.  There  is  no  other  body  of  persons  fitted 
for  this  service.  Rarely  do  we  see  it  hinted  that  a 
young  woman  should  go  to  a  normal  school  in  order  to 
fit  herself  to  be  the  teacher  of  her  own  children.  Yet 
this  doctrine  is  a  logical  inference  from  that  of  the 
educational  value  of  the  family.  Some  socialists  are 
also  logical  when  they  say  that  mothers  are  not  fit  to 
educate  their  offspring  and  therefore  the  children 

Parental  ' 

training.  should  be  brought  up  in  communal  establishments 

conducted  by  trained  and  competent  nurses  and  instruct- 
ors. The  only  entirely  satisfactory  reply  to  the  social- 
istic theory  is  that  we  must  teach  the  mothers  to 
perform  duties  which  cannot  be  delegated  without  fear- 
ful increase  in  mortality  and  without  violation  of  the 
holiest  instincts  of  our  nature. 

Fortunately  there  is  a  movement  already  widely  ex- 
tended to  bring  school  and  home  into  relations  of 
reciprocal  helpfulness.  In  some  places  the  initiative  is 
taken  by  teachers,  in  others  by  parents. 

The    leaders    of    kindergartens    and    their    training 


The  Social  Spirit  in  the  State  School  System.      203 

schools  are  calling  conferences  of  mothers  which  have 
already  proved  very  important.  Principals  of  public 
schools  have  long  been  in  the  habit  of  having  exhibitions  wilh  Parent»- 
and  festivals  in  which  the  community  was  invited  to 
enjoy  the  entertainment  given  by  the  pupils.  Courses 
of  University  Extension  lectures  on  the  principles  and 
methods  of  teaching  might  be  offered  in  schoolrooms 
and  attract  for  their  audiences  teachers,  parents,  and 
Sunday-school  workers.  The  familiar  discussion  in 
mixed  classes  would  reveal  to  those  persons  the  essen- 
tial unity  of  their  labors,  and  fit  them  for  more  effective 
cooperation  in  the  social  task. 

What  institution  of  society  can  so  well  give  the  neces- 
sary knowledge  of  the  difficult  art  of  household  life  as  Domestic 

0  ...  science  in 

the  common  school  ?  Elementary  instruction  in  regard  the  school, 
to  the  chemistry  of  foods,  the  functions  and  dangers  of 
bacteria,  the  reasons  for  cleanliness,  the  selection  and 
care  of  furniture,  bedding,  and  clothing,  ventilation, 
heating,  plumbing  and  drainage,  and  household  ac- 
counts is  entirely  possible.  Primary  text-books  are 
already  provided.  Interesting  experiments  are  easily 
made.  The  educational  value  of  the  study  could  be 
kept  up  by  making  it  contribute  to  language  and  mathe- 
matical work.  With  some  care  the  scientific  facts  and 
principles  could  be  presented  in  beautiful  literary  form, 
as  has  been  shown  in  many  charming  juvenile  books  on 
nature  studies.  The  health  and  happiness  of  multitudes 
depend  on  the  universal  diffusion  of  existing  knowledge 
on  these  subjects  ;  and  there  is  no  educational  institu- 
tion save  the  common  school  which  can  reach  all  mem- 
bers of  the  nation. 

We  leave  the  seriously  defective  and  perverted  to  be  -Nature-i 
studied  at  a  later  stage.     They  do  not  belong  to  the  step<l 
public  schools,   but  to  special  institutions.     There  are 


204 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


The  duty. 


Invent 

methods. 


many  children,  however,  who  must  be  dealt  with  in  the 
common  schools  and  who  require  peculiar  treatment. 
Miss  Alice  J.  Mott,  in  a  suggestive  paper,  has  called 
them  "  Nature's  step-children."  They  are  not  imbecile 
nor  criminal,  but  slow.  They  cannot  keep  up  with  ordi- 
nary classes  in  all  studies  and  the  effort  to  push  them 
produces  bewilderment,  discouragement,  despair.  If 
they  are  sweet-tempered  constant  failure  in  the  presence 
of  superiors  breaks  their  hearts  and  subdues  their  spirit. 
If  they  are  impetuous  the  school  discipline  turns  them 
into  rebels,  criminals.  Most  school-teachers  and  many 
parents  are  acquainted  with  children  of  both  types. 

Society  must  provide  for  the  suitable  training  of  these 
children  or  have  to  fight  them  as  lawless  adults  or  sup- 
port them  as  parasitic  paupers.  The  methods  appropri- 
ate for  normal  children  tend  to  repress  and  stupefy  the 
slow  pupils. 

What  should  be  done  ?  Let  the  school  boards  dis- 
cover from  the  teachers  the  number  of  such  children 
and  provide  the  necessary  facilities  for  their  develop- 
ment. Here  is  a  boy  who  turns  truant  and  barn-burner 
because  he  cannot  learn  language  ;  but  in  a  machine 
shop  he  discovers  his  talents  and  works  out  a  good 
heritage  of  character.  Here  is  a  girl  to  whom  history  is 
one  long  torment ;  yet  in  a  sewing-school  and  kitchen 
she  can  be  made  a  model  housekeeper.  Colleges  are 
offering  elective  courses  ;  why  should  the  rigid  curricu- 
lum be  reserved  for  the  younger  students  ?  Why  should 
boys  and  girls  be  driven  along  in  a  way  ever  associated 
with  disgrace,  humiliation,  and  unintelligible  lessons? 
The  lady  just  cited  tells  of  one  who  confessed  :  "I 
never  had  a  happy  or  even  comfortable  moment  in  all 
my  school  life,  excepting  three  times :  once  when  the 
schoolhouse  chimney  burned  out ;  once  when  the  plas- 


The  Social  Spirit  in  the  State  School  System.     205 

tering  fell  on   our  heads,   and  once  when  one  of  my 
schoolmates  had  an  epileptic  fit." 

Some  one  has  related  that  Dr.  Arnold,  of  Rugby, 
though  usually  patient,  once  spoke  sharply  to  a  dull 
pupil,  who  replied  :  "Why  do  you  speak  angrily,  sir? 
Indeed,  I  am  doing  the  best  I  can."  Dr.  Arnold  said 
he  never  so  felt  a  rebuke  in  his  life.  And  surprises 
sometimes  await  the  impatient  teacher  who  measures  all 
scholars  by  one  rule.  An  Edinburgh  professor  once 
cried  out  to  a  dull  boy  in  his  class  :  ' '  Dunce  you  are, 
and  dunce  you  will  always  remain."  That  student  was 
afterward  known  by  the  name  of  Sir  Walter  Scott. 
Angels  even  in  modern  schoolrooms  are  sometimes 
entertained  unawares.  One  of  the  greatest  orators  in 
America  was  as  a  schoolboy  more  famous  for  throw- 
ing paper  wads  than  for  mathematics.  The  stupidity 
ascribed  to  a  pupil  may  really  belong  to  the  teachers 
who  lack  insight  and  carefulness  of  observation. 

Principal    Parker,    of  the   Chicago   Normal  School, 
illustrated  the  injustice   from  which   slow  or  defective  «nju»tice. 
children  suffer. 

He  spoke  of  a  boy  who  had  been  brought  to  him  by  his 
mother.  Her  story  was  that  the  boy  was  fifteen  years  old, 
that  he  had  attended  school  regularly  from  the  age  of  seven, 
and  he  had  reached  only  the  third  grade  ;  he  was  years  behind 
boys  of  his  own  age.  He  was  lovable,  kind,  had  no  bad 
habits— just  stupid.  Colonel  Parker  spoke  to  the  boy,  and 
discovered  from  the  way  in  which  he  held  his  head  that  he  was 
deaf.  The  mother  protested  that  it  could  not  be.  Colonel 
Parker  insisted-  that  he  was  right.  The  boy  was  put  in  charge 
of  a  careful,  observing  teacher,  who,  at  the  end  of  a  session, 
announced  that  the  boy  was  near-sighted — so  near-sighted  that 
he  could  not  distinguish  letters  or  figures  on  the  blackboard. 

In  all  cases  of  unusually  slow  children  careful  tests  of 
their  physical  condition  should  be  made  by  physicians 


206 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Improved 
rural  schools. 


Obstacles. 


Remedy. 


and  teachers,  and  special  methods  of  patient  instruction 
should  be  adopted  in  order  to  unfold  their  powers. 

To  stem  the  tide  of  migration  to  cities  ;  to  give  the 
best  advantages  of  education  to  the  sturdy  and  healthy 
inhabitants  of  farms  ;  to  equalize  the  privileges  of  civili- 
zation ;  to  prepare  all  for  the  duties  of  citizenship, 
better  rural  schools  are  required. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  raising  the  quality  of 
schools  in  the  country  are  very  serious.  In  many 
districts  there  has  been  a  steady  decline  of  population, 
due  to  the  flow  toward  towns.  The  average  number  of 
children  in  families  is  much  smaller  than  in  former 
times.  When  the  population  is  scant  and  poor  the 
financial  burdens  are  very  heavy. 

As  a  result  of  these  causes  many  schools  have  fewer 
than  ten  pupils.  With  so  small  a  number  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  secure  the  services  of  a  competent  and  energetic 
teacher.  In  the  absence  of  competition  and  emulation 
the  best  energies  of  students  cannot  be  called  forth. 
There  is  an  atmosphere  of  discouragement  and  depres- 
sion. In  a  small  school  where  youth  of  all  ages,  from 
six  to  eighteen,  come  for  instruction,  even  a  brilliant 
teacher  would  find  it  impossible  to  meet  their  wants. 
There  can  be  no  adequate  grading  of  classes ;  no 
specialization  of  instruction.  The  teacher  is  distracted, 
fretted,  confused  by  the  multiplicity  of  subjects,  and 
falls  into  the  mechanical  habit  of  hearing  by  rote  recita- 
tions out  of  text-books.  In  a  poor  district  the  school- 
house  must  be  scantily  furnished  with  maps,  charts, 
globes,  and  other  indispensable  apparatus. 

It  has  long  been  evident  that  the  townships  should 
pursue  a  policy  of  consolidation.  The  inefficient  small 
schools  should  be  closed  up  ;  the  children  massed  in 
the  villages  and  centers  of  population  ;  fewer  and  bette' 


The  Social  Spirit  in  the  State  School  System.      207 

teachers  set  over  larger  and  more  inspiring  classes  ; 
higher  salaries  paid  so  as  to  command  better  ability. 
Since  the  towns  keep  their  schools  open  a  longer  term 
the  number  of  days  of  schooling  would  be  materially 
increased. 

One  of  the  chief  objections  to  consolidation  came 
from  the  parents  who  lived  at  a  long  distance  from  the 
village.  They  complained  that  their  children  could  not  cfo 
walk  so  far.  This  difficulty  has  been  overcome  in  to  school. 
Massachusetts  by  providing  carriages  for  the  convey- 
ance of  children  to  school  in  case  the  distance  is  too 
great  for  them  to  go  on  foot.  By  a  law  approved 
April  i,  1869,  towns  of  that  commonwealth  were  per- 
mitted to  use  school  funds  for  the  conveyance  of  pupils 
to  and  from  the  public  schools.  After  a  trial  in  that 
state  the  experiment  has  extended  to  New  Hampshire, 
Vermont,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  Ohio,  and  is 
urged  for  adoption  by  educational  authorities  in  New 
York,  Wisconsin,  and  elsewhere. 

The  pupils  are  aroused  to  their  best  effort  by  the 
enthusiasm  of  numbers  ;  they  are  arranged  in  grades  Advantages, 
and  classes  more  nearly  according  to  their  requirements; 
they  are  trained  to  habits  of  promptness  and  punctuality; 
their  conduct  on  the  way  to  school  is  under  the  super- 
vision of  a  mature  and  trustworthy  person,  and  the 
moral  dangers  can  be  reduced  ;  they  do  not  come  to  the 
day's  work  in  wet  garments,  chilled  by  winter's  cold  ;  in 
the  schools  they  come  under  a  higher  quality  of  teach- 
ing ability  ;  and  the  supervision  of  directors  and  super- 
intendents can  be  made  more  thorough.  The  movement 
seems  to  have  passed  the  stage  of  experiment  and  to 
deserve  careful  attention  and  imitation  where  the  condi- 
tions call  for  it. 

The  rural  schools,  it  is  complained,  are  making  young 


208 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Adaptation  of 
rural  teaching 
to  rural  life. 


High  School 
Extension. 


people  discontented  with  farm  life  and  sending  them  to 
the  wicked  and  crowded  cities  to  beg  positions  and 
to  sleep  in  garrets.  Then  let  the  rural  schools  show 
how  to  turn  the  farm  into  a  laboratory  of  science  ;  let 
useful  learning  illustrate  the  infinite  forces  and  everlast- 
ing laws  of  soil  and  vegetation  and  atmosphere ;  and  the 
intellectual  attraction  of  the  craft  of  husbandry  will  act 
powerfully  to  retain  the  inquiring  spirits  upon  the  land. 
The  work  of  the  real  teacher  must  point  to  the  future 
calling  of  the  farmer  and  not  away  from  it. 

While  class  work  must  remain  the  chief  element  in 
the  high  schools  there  is  the  beginning  of  a  movement 
to  bring  this  institution  into  closer  relations  with  the 
home,  the  shop,  the  store,  and  the  common  interests  of 
the  adult  population.  Thousands  of  people  are  com- 
pelled to  leave  school  just  at  the  time  when  the  wider 
outlook  of  the  high  school  was  opening  to  them  a  land 
of  promise.  There  is  a  deep  and  bitter  feeling  of  an- 
tagonism to  this  essential  part  of  our  system  which  may 
be  mitigated  if  not  removed.  No  reason  exists  for  the 
exclusion  from  these  advanced  privileges  of  any  citizen. 
Those  who  have  gone  into  business  or  trades  can  con- 
tinue their  studies  all  through  life. 

A  quotation  from  a  report  by  Principal  F.  A.  Manny, 
formerly  of  Moline,  Illinois,  will  illustrate  one  method  of 
approach.  "A  college  day  program  by  Moline  College 
students,  an  address  on  eastern  college  life,  a  program 
illustrative  of  high  school  work,  lectures  on  travel, 
current  events,  clubs,  receptions  for  pupils  and  parents 
— all  these  have  helped  to  make  the  high  school  build- 
ing mean  more  to  students  and  at  the  same  time  have 
brought  many  hundreds  of  parents  and  friends  to  the 
school.  The  purchase  of  a  stereopticon  makes  the  pos- 
sibilities of  this  department  vastly  greater  than  ever." 


The  Social  Spirit  in  the  State  School  System.      209 

The  teachers  and  students  have  maintained  night  classes 
in  the  town  for  persons  who  must  work  in  the  daytime. 
A  slight  additional  expense  for  teachers  and  care  of 
rooms  would  multiply  the  usefulness  of  the  institution 
and  endear  it  to  multitudes.  Such  a  high  school 
promises  to  become  the  college  for  the  people. 

In  April,  1895,  the  legislature  of  New  York  made  an 
annual  appropriation  of  $25,000  for  four  years  of  free  Lecture 
lectures.  During  the  first  year  the  report  of  Dr.  Bick- 
more  shows  that  the  lectures  were  enjoyed  by  fully  a 
million  people  of  the  state,  in  country  and  city.  Essen- 
tial factors  in  this  attempt  to  popularize  instruction  in 
art,  science,  history,  travel,  and  literature  are  the  magic 
lantern,  music,  and,  for  some  subjects,  dramatic  repre- 
sentation. Those  who  are  not  pursuing  exhausting 
avocations  and  have  some  powers  of  attention  can  do 
better  work  in  classes.  Various  methods,  adapted  to 
local  conditions,  must  be  employed,  and  the  field  for  in- 
vention is  practically  boundless. 

The  scholars  of  a  community  ought  to  take  to  heart 
the  boast  of  one  quaint  English  classic  : 

I  make  not  my  head  a  grave  but  a  treasury  of  knowledge.  I 
intend  no  monopoly  but  a  community  in  learning.  I  study  not 
for  my  own  sake  only,  but  for  theirs  who  study  not  for  them- 
selves. ("  Religio  Medici.") 

Social  history  points  to  a  very  important  change  in 
industrial  life.  In  a  former  age  there  was  an  appren-  Trade  schools, 
ticeship  system  ;  the  boys  lived  with  a  master  and 
learned  his  trade.  That  time  has  gone  by,  never  to 
return.  The  millionaire  manager  will  have  no  appren- 
tice lads  under  his  heels,  and  his  diamond-decked  wife 
will  not  have  the  care  of  a  hundred  awkward  youth  who 
work  in  her  husband's  iron-mill.  Simply  to  suggest  the 
picture  is  to  make  thought  of  a  renewal  of  the  old  sys- 


210 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Vicissitudes  of 
the  trades. 


Manual 
training. 


tem  ridiculous.  And  then  the  machine  has  driven  out 
the  apprentice.  A  machine  costs  money,  goes  by  steam, 
and  cannot  stop  to  wait  even  while  a  boy  picks  up  the 
finger  which  he  has  just  cut  off  with  a  buzz-saw.  The 
foreman  cannot  wait  to  teach  a  lad.  Enough  if  the 
stout  laborer  is  instructed  to  manage  a  single  machine 
"so  strong  that  no  fool  can  break  it,  so  simple  that  any 
fool  can  run  it. ' '  There  are  no  trades,  only  processes. 

Looking  over  forty  years  of  industrial  history  we  see 
the  death  of  the  trades,  one  by  one  :  type-setting  is 
gone,  killed  by  the  linotype;  house-building  is  composed 
of  many  arts,  and  these  are  passing  into  sash,  door,  and 
blind  factories  ;  the  electric  motorman  is  displacing  the 
locomotive  engineer  ;  the  machine-cutter  is  expelling 
the  tailors.  The  shoemaker  is  a  factory  hand. 

This  swift  transformation  makes  it  at  once  impossible 
and  useless  to  have  a  full  trade.  And  yet  some  special 
arts  can  be  taught  and  there  is  a  limited  demand  for 
technical  schools.  Mr.  Auchmuty's  building  schools  in 
New  York,  business  colleges,  classes  in  type-writing, 
telegraphy,  and  various  technical  institutes  show  what 
may  be  done.  Gradually  the  public  system  is  being  ex- 
tended to  give  instruction  in  any  art  which  will  fit  peo- 
ple for  their  place  in  life.  If  the  state  teaches  physicians, 
lawyers,  dentists,  and  pharmacists,  why  not  smiths, 
weavers,  decorators,  and  machinists?  These  are  ques- 
tions democracy  is  sure  to  ask  until  it  gets  answer. 

A  discussion  of  manual  training  methods  addressed  to 
teachers  would  be  out  of  place  in  this  book.  But  the 
success  of  this  new  branch  of  education  depends  so 
much  on  public  sympathy  that  the  grounds  of  appeal  for 
support  should  be  frequently  restated.  In  some  cities 
the  manual  training  department  has  been  established  by 
private  enterprise  and  conducted  at  the  cost  of  far-seeing 


The  Social  Spirit  in  the  State  School  System.      2 1 1 

and  liberal  men  until  the  community  could  appreciate  its 
value  and  consent  to  the  necessary  tax  for  support.  But 
private  enterprise  can  never  supply  the  wants  of  the  en- 
tire school  population. 

The  modern  fact  just  noted,  that  there  are  no  full 
trades,  and  that  all  mechanical  arts  are  ever  in  process  Lost  arts- 
of  dissolution  and  transformation,  implies  the  necessity 
of  training  youth  in  versatility  and  adaptability.  If  a 
course  of  instruction  could  be  devised  which  should  give 
young  people  the  key,  the  alphabet  of  all  possible 
trades,  the  principles  common  to  all  the  arts,  the  per- 
sons so  educated  would  be  able  to  pass  over  from 
one  trade  to  another. 

Now  there  is  just  such  a  method  of  education.  This 
method  goes  by  various  names.  In  its  best  form  it  is 
"kindergarten  "  for  children  of  the  ages  of  three  to  six. 
At  a  later  stage  it  is  called  "sloyd"  and  "manual 
training."  Educational  experiments  are  now  being 
tried  which  promise  to  show  that  this  constructive, 
creative  method  should  run  through  the  whole  school 
life.  A  few  tools  are  the  elements  of  all  complex 
machines.  A  few  principles  govern  the  development 
of  all  industrial  processes.  Therefore  what  we  want  is 
an  education  of  all  youth  which  will  enable  them  to 
change  from  one  process  to  another  without  undue  loss 
of  time  and  energy. 

The  best  years  for  this  kind  of  preparation  are  those 
from  twelve  to  sixteen.  Up  to  the  twelfth  year  a  boy  Lengthen 

...  ,  .;     school  life. 

cannot  be  trusted  with  many  sharp  tools  or  swift 
machines,  nor  can  he  carry  on  the  mental  processes 
which  make  part  of  the  manual  training  school  method. 
Professor  C.  M.  Woodward' s  tables  show  that  the  aver- 
age age  of  withdrawal  from  schools  in  St.  Louis  is  13.3 
years;  in  Chicago,  14.5  years;  and  in  Boston,  15.9 


212 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Neglect  of 
crime  causes. 


Imported 
competitors. 


years.  In  many  communities  this  age  is  lower.  Boys 
leave  school  earlier  than  girls,  but  without  equipment 
for  the  life  of  our  industrial  system,  and,  because  many 
of  them  are  not  prepared  to  be  self-supporting,  they 
drift  into  idleness,  vice,  and  crime.  School  boards 
should  be  authorized  and  required  to  provide  a  course 
of  study  fitted  for  these  years  ;  the  age  of  compulsory 
attendance  should  be  made  as  high  as  the  industrial  con- 
ditions will  permit  ;  and  factory  laws,  enforced  by  in- 
spection, should  prevent  the  employment  of  youth  not 
duly  prepared  for  specialized  industry. 

In  these  ways  we  should  avoid  the  necessity  of  guard- 
ing lads  by  a  costly  system  of  police,  of  punishing  them 
by  an  expensive  series  of  courts  and  prisons,  and  of 
supporting  them  as  vagrants  in  poorhouses  or  by  dole 
charities  and  woodyards.  Is  it  not  a  sorry  tribute 
to  national  shrewdness  and  insight  that  we  first  deny 
our  boys  all  chance  to  learn  an  art  in  its  principles,  im- 
port skilled  men  to  displace  our  own  sons,  and  then,  all 
too  late,  give  our  boys  in  reformatories  just  that  man- 
ual and  technical  training  the  lack  of  which  sent  them  to 
those  penal  institutions  ? 

It  has  actually  come  to  this  deplorable  result  that  the 
only  way  in  which  a  boy  can  learn  a  useful  mechanical 
calling  is  by  committing  some  crime  which  will  take  him 
to  a  manual  training  or  trade  school.  As  the  ' '  social 
spirit"  becomes  more  enlightened  it  will  reverse  this 
order  ;  it  will  build  additions  to  the  schoolhouses  for 
tool  work  and  it  will  diminish  the  reformatories.  A  list 
of  cities  which  have  already  introduced  these  improve- 
ments and  which  carry  the  honorable  banner  of  pioneers 
of  progress  would  be  an  argument  of  hope  and  good 
cheer.  Teachers'  institutes  and  conventions  are  eagerly 
discussing  methods  of  fitting  youth  for  life  in  this  actual 


The  Social  Spirit  in  the  State  School  System.     213 

world  which  encompasses  us  all.  Education  is  not 
merely  preparation  for  life,  it  is  life.  To  make  manual 
work  honorable  we  must  give  it  rank  and  place  along 
with  literature,  history,  art,  and  classics,  and  thus  asso- 
ciate the  useful  occupations  inseparably  with  ideal  pur- 
suits. 

Why  should  we  tax  the  entire  community  to  support 
schools  and  then  permit  the  children  to  pass  school  age  Required 

attendance. 

without  using  them?  Children  have  a  right  to  a  fair 
opportunity  of  unfolding  and  discovering  their  native 
abilities.  The  word  ' '  compulsory ' '  education  is  a  mis- 
nomer. With  the  right  sort  of  instruction,  and  with 
good  home  influence  there  is  seldom  need  to  compel  at- 
tendance and  work.  Shakespeare's 

whining  schoolboy,  with  his  satchel 
And  shining  morning  face,  creeping  like  snail 
Unwillingly  to  school 

lived  before  the  days  of  tool  practice,  drawing,  clay 
modeling,  sand  maps,  and  illustrated  histories.  And 
yet  even  he,  with  all  his  whimpering,  learned  to  read, 
and  afterward  wrote  laws  and  books  and  found  his  way 
around  the  world. 

If  the  avarice  of  parents  robs  their  offspring  of  school 
such  parents  must  be  prevented  from  carrying  out  their 
base  intention.  If  extreme  destitution  is  the  obstacle, 
then  charity  must  remove  it. 

In  some  parts  of  the  United  States  there  is  a  general 
demand  for  religious  services  and  very  little  opposition.  Religious 

teaching. 

But  in  large  towns  and  cities  with  a  heterogeneous  popu- 
lation sectarian  differences  and  secular  antagonism  have 
banished  Bible  reading,  religious  teaching,  and  public 
prayer  from  the  tax-supported  schools.  It  is  impossi- 
ble to  foretell  the  issue  of  this  unhappy  controversy, 
but  some  consequences  are  already  becoming  clear.  If 


2I4 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Ethical 
teaching. 


Higher  edu- 
cation by 
the  state. 


the  state  must  refuse  to  teach  religion  then  this  duty  is 
all  the  more  to  be  felt  by  the  family  and  the  church. 
Probably  it  will  be  found  in  the  event  that  the  instruc- 
tion will  be  more  vital,  sincere,  and  potent  than  if  it 
were  imparted  in  a  perfunctory  way  by  teachers  who 
are  not  always  in  sympathy  with  the  exercises.  The 
mode  of  imparting  knowledge  may  be  less  systematic 
and  accurate,  but  even  this  may  be  improved. 

We  can  also  see  a  tendency  to  recognize  the  Bible  as 
an  indispensable  factor  in  history,  literature,  and  ethics. 
Suitable  selections  can  be  made  from  it  which  will  not 
give  offense  to  any  reasonable  person  nor  come  into 
collision  with  our  fundamental  law  which  separates 
church  from  state  and  forbids  the  use  of  public  funds 
for  sectarian  uses. 

There  is  a  general  and  growing  demand  for  the  teach- 
ing of  human  duties  and  virtues  on  the  general  basis  of 
social  obligations.  All  well-ordered  schools  are,  with- 
out formal  and  set  lessons,  agencies  for  moral  discipline, 
for  the  formation  of  habits  of  respect,  honesty,  punctu- 
ality, sympathy,  and  order.  The  best  lesson  in  morality 
is  the  life  of  the  teacher  and  the  daily  conduct  of  the 
student  community.  But  in  addition  to  these  pro- 
visions for  forming  character  it  is  coming  to  be  gener- 
ally believed  that  a  graded,  comprehensive,  and  sys- 
tematic method  of  instruction  and  discipline  should  be 
adopted  for  forming,  by  conscious  effort,  the  social  im- 
pulses and  habits  of  the  pupils. 

There  is  no  logical  stopping-place  in  the  development 
of  our  public  schools.  Mr.  Huxley's  ideal  of  free 
education  for  all  citizens  "from  the  gutter  to  the  uni- 
versity" is  realized  in  the  United  States.  It  is  too  late 
in  the  day  to  resist  this  tendency.  Our  governments 
throw  no  obstacles  in  the  way  of  privately  endowed 


The  Social  Spirit  in  the  State  School  System.      2 1 5 

colleges  and  universities.  There  is  no  danger  of  an  all- 
powerful  state  monopoly  of  higher  education  with  a 
fixed  and  fossil  type,  secure  from  competition.  The 
nation  will  keep  faith  with  the  endowed  institutions  of 
learning  to  which  it  has  granted  sacred  charters.  But 
the  whole  people  will  not  depend  upon  the  capricious 
working  of  private  benevolence  to  make  sure  the  oppor- 
tunity of  the  highest  culture  to  all  its  youth  who  are 
competent  and  ambitious.  There  is  room  for  all  and  a 
generous  rivalry  will  not  exclude  a  patriotic  cooperation 
of  all  for  the  nation's  honor  and  progress. 

The  members  of  the  teaching  profession  are  obliged 
to  instruct  their  directors.  It  is  a  delicate  and  difficult  education, 
work,  and  the  pupils  are  not  always  docile  and  humble. 
A  great  manufacturer  or  even  a  successful  saloon- 
keeper, once  elected  to  a  school  board,  suddenly  feels 
inspired  with  unlimited  confidence  in  his  own  ability  as 
an  educator.  Fortunately,  most  of  our  directors  are 
capable  of  learning  enough  of  the  principles  of  educa- 
tion, after  some  experience,  to  select  good  superintend- 
ents and  support  them.  When  we  can  keep  the 
"spoils  system"  down,  the  boards  can  be  turned  into 
normal  institutes  and  fit  their  members  for  the  business. 
It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  there  is  room,  wide 
as  the  continent,  for  improvement.  The  electors  should 
require  proof  of  all  candidates  for  these  honorable  offices 
that  they  have  themselves  had  a  good  education  and 
have  studied  the  literature  of  pedagogy. 

The  library  should  be  regarded  as  an  essential  part  of 
the  school  system.  If  the  teacher's  labors  have  been 
successful  the  pupils  will  have  a  hunger  for  knowledge 
and  a  taste  for  reading.  The  town  or  village  which  has 
no  public  library  and  reading-room  is  resting  under  a 
cloud  of  disgrace.  Here  is  an  appropriate  object  for 


216 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


the  gifts  of  wealthy  citizens  whose  real  estate  has  risen 
in  value  because  of  the  growth  of  population  and  of  the 
industries  of  the  locality.  Here  is  a  new  profession, 
the  office  of  librarian,  which  ranks  in  dignity  and  useful- 
ness with  that  of  teacher  and  preacher. 

The  New  York  method  of  sending  small  libraries  to 
villages,  to  rural  communities,  and  to  groups  of  respon- 
sible persons  should  be  rapidly  extended  to  all  our 
agricultural  states.  These  libraries  are  sent  on  the 
application  of  twenty-five  resident  taxpayers  or  other 
trustworthy  persons  who  must  agree  to  seek  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  local  free  library  as  soon  as  public  interest 
will  warrant  the  venture.  This  method  has  already 
been  adopted  in  several  western  states  and  promises  to 
be  popular  and  beneficent. 

We  have  given  generous  praise  to  our  public  school 
system  because  it  deserves  praise.  We  should  seek  to 
improve  the  quality  of  teaching  ;  and  this  demands  more 
normal  schools  and  students  for  them  ;  greater  perma- 
nence in  the  office,  to  secure  the  fruits  of  experience  ;  a 
higher  grade  of  examinations  for  certificates  ;  freedom 
from  partisan,  personal,  and  sectarian  influence  on  ap- 
pointments ;  better  salaries  ;  smaller  classes  in  the  cities 
where  teachers  are  overwhelmed  in  the  crowd  of  chil- 
dren ;  more  thorough  and  sympathetic  supervision. 

The  use  of  partisan  methods  and  corrupting 
influences  in  the  selection  of  text-books  and  the 
appointment  of  teachers  is,  in  some  parts  of  our 
country,  a  serious  injury  to  the  educational  and 
moral  influence  of  our  schools.  But  all  reforms  must 
come  with  civic  interest,  higher  estimates  of  culture, 
purification  of  political  administration,  and  the  gen- 
eral diffusion  of  knowledge  relating  to  the  develop- 
ment of  human  faculty  and  the  values  of  human  life. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

VOLUNTARY  ORGANIZATION  OF  EDUCATION. 

THE  institutions  of  culture  did  not  come  down  to  us 
from  the  clouds,  carried  by  bodiless  angels  who  can 
work  without  salaries.  They  were  not  the  free  gift  of  Spontaneity. 
foreign  rulers  nor  even  the  product  of  a  system  of  taxa- 
tion. The  fact  that  education  is  a  growth  of  the  free 
social  spirit,  native  to  our  soil,  is  evidenced  by  the  crea- 
tion, maintenance,  and  endowment  of  many  schools  and 
associations  which  owe  nothing  to  the  government  save 
charters,  protection,  and  exemption  from  taxation. 

Some  of  the  data  for  this  opinion  may  here  be  set 
down.  The  ambition  to  secure  an  education,  the  in- 
tense craving  for  knowledge,  the  altruistic  impulse  to 
diffuse  the  blessings  of  truth  and  beauty,  the  longing  of 
parents  to  give  children  a  larger  opportunity  than  they 
themselves  enjoyed,  the  patriotic  pride  in  our  own  insti- 
tutions have  been  among  the  motives  which  produced 
our  free  school  system  and  many  other  educational 
agencies.  Throughout  many  parts  of  the  United  States 
the  private  school  preceded  the  public  school.  It  was  a 
common  custom  for  the  wealthier  men  in  a  community 
to  employ  a  teacher  and  then  invite  the  neighbors  to 
share  the  expense  according  to  their  ability.  It  was  this 
spontaneous  and  philanthropic  effort  which  prepared  the 
soil  and  sowed  the  seed  for  our  present  universal  system 
of  state  instruction. 

The  experiments  in  educational  methods  are  usually 
tried  at  the  cost  of  progressive  and  enterprising  men  in 

317 


218 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Freedom. 


private  station.  Free  libraries  have  been  furnished  in 
Experiments.  many  localities  by  individual  benefactors  or  by  voluntary 
associations,  until  the  appetite  for  reading  became  so 
general  and  keen  that  a  tax  could  be  ordered  for  extend- 
ing the  institution.  In  the  same  way  at  present  the 
kindergartens  and  manual  training  schools  are  being 
brought  before  the  public  for  consideration.  Associa- 
tions of  charitable  and  energetic  citizens  who  believe  in 
the  efficacy  of  new  methods  are  content  to  give  proof  of 
their  faith  by  investment  in  schools  unlike  any  hereto- 
fore familiar.  It  cannot  be  expected  that  large  masses 
of  men  will  move  so  promptly  as  small  companies  of 
superior  persons.  When  the  value  of  a  method  has 
been  demonstrated  on  a  small  scale  it  can  be  pressed 
upon  the  attention  of  municipal  boards.  For  this  reason 
it  would  be  injurious,  perhaps  fatal,  to  progress,  if  the 
state  had  a  monopoly  of  education  and  should  drive 
private  associations  from  the  field.  There  would  be 
danger  of  stagnation,  routine,  formalism,  death. 

Happily  the  American  people  care  little  for  mere 
theoretical  assumptions.  They  desire  a  satisfaction  or  a 
means  of  culture  and  go  about  procuring  it  by  the 
most  direct  way.  If  they  can  induce  the  public  to  pay 
for  it,  well.  If  the  public  is  reluctant  to  risk  capital  in 
a  change,  then  some  one  will  be  found  wise  and  rich 
enough,  or  fanatical  enough,  to  try  it.  Thus  by  a 
gradual  process  of  experiment  and  agitation  kindergar- 
tens, drawing,  tool-practice,  manual  training,  sloyd,  and 
Pioneers.  many  other  novel  features  have  come  to  form  part  of 

the  free  school  system.  The  pioneers,  mocked,  abused 
at  first,  compelled  to  try  their  inventions  at  cost  of 
their  own  funds,  are  finally  rewarded  in  honor  for  their 
wisdom  and  their  courage.  If  the  scheme  fails  the  pro- 
moters are  mercifully  forgotten. 


Voluntary  Organization  of  Education.          219 

The  statistics  not  only  of  denominational  institutions 
but  even  of  state  and  city  schools  and  colleges  show  how  statistics, 
large  a  factor  in  higher  education  philanthropy  has  be- 
come. In  the  recent  reports  of  Dr.  Harris,  1894-5, 
the  following  significant  figures  are  given  in  relation  to 
colleges  and  universities  in  the  United  States.  The 
whole  number  reporting  was  481,  with  11,582  instruc- 
tors and  149,939  students.  The  total  increase  reported 
was  $16,789,638,  of  which  37.8  per  cent  was  derived 
from  students'  fees,  31.7  per  cent  from  endowments, 
17.6  per  cent  from  municipal,  state,  and  national  appro- 
priations, and  12.9  per  cent  from  miscellaneous  sources. 
The  entire  amount  of  benefactions  reported  for  the  year 
was  $5,350,963,  but  the  year  before  it  was  nearly  four 
million  dollars  greater.  The  value  of  all  property 
belonging  to  these  institutions  is  $232,195,461,  of 
which  amount  $102,574,808  are  reported  as  permanent 
endowment  funds.  Benefactions  amounting  in  1895  to 
$495,760  were  shared  by  140  secondary  schools. 

The  Roman  Catholics  report  3,361  parishes  with 
schools,  and  about  800,000  pupils.  The  Evangelical  fcahooisal 
Lutherans  report  3,079  parochial  schools  and  a  little 
more  than  200,000  pupils.  The  German  Evangelical 
Synod  of  North  America  reports  410  schools  and 
17,911  pupils.  The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  re- 
ports 336  teachers  and  6,860  pupils.  The  Holland 
Christian  Reformed  reports  17  schools  and  2,229 
pupils.  There  are  a  few  others  of  minor  importance.1 

The  total  number  of  pupils  taught  in  parochial 
schools  in  the  United  States  is  given  as  1,028,843. 
These  schools,  with  few  exceptions,  are  supported  by 
voluntary  gifts  without  taxation.  But  it  must  be 
remembered  that  many  of  these  children  go  to  parochial 

.1  Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education,  1894-5,  pages  1662-3. 


22O 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


schools  only  for  a  time  previous  to  confirmation  and 
attend  the  public  schools  at  other  times. 

A  significant  and  characteristically  American  move- 
ment to  popularize  education  was  started  at  Chau- 
tauqua,  New  York,  and  in  the  congenial  spiritual 
climate  of  our  people  has  been  imitated,  with  many 
ingenious  variations,  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  The 
central  impulse  of  the  movement  has  been  belief  in 
God,  and  an  ideal  of  culture  which  includes  with 
faith,  hope  and  love,  all  beauty,  truth  and  goodness. 
Richer  contents  have  been  read  into  Puritanism,  and 
its  powerful  message  made  more  gracious. 

Religion  with  the  founders  was  not  a  rite,  a  mere 
literary  deposit,  a  concern  of  Sabbaths,  priests,  castes, 
or  special  occasions.  It  was  the  atmosphere  and  vital 
element  of  all  life.  In  its  definition  were  comprehended 
the  faithfulness  of  the  mother  in  kitchen  and  nursery, 
the  courage  of  the  soldier,  the  sturdy  manliness  and 
industry  of  the  village  blacksmith,  the  vigorous  and 
confident  march  and  toil  of  the  pioneer,  the  devotion  of 
the  philanthropist,  the  sacrifice  of  hospital  nurses,  the 
wise  services  of  statesmen,  the  iconoclastic  zeal  of 
reformers,  the  patience  of  the  scholar's  research,  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  poet  or  preacher,  the  sensuous  and 
spiritual  ecstasies  of  the  musician,  the  craving  curiosity 
of  the  student.  All  days  are  Sabbaths.  All  labors  are 
sacred.  We  should  study  the  works,  the  ways,  and 
the  word  of  God,  and  that  for  the  good  of  all,  not  for 
ourselves  alone.  Education  is  never  finished.  The 
spirit  never  grows  old.  They  who  think,  learn,  serve, 
hope,  and  trust  have  immortal  youth.  We  have  seen  a 
woman  of  eighty  years  receive  her  certificate  after  a 
course  of  reading  with  the  blushing  pride  of  a  girl  of 
sixteen, 


Voluntary  Organization  of  Education.          221 

President  Hegeman,  of  the  Metropolitan  Life,  gave 
to  high  school  pupils  counsel  which  reveals  the  law  of 
personal  perfection  and  the  condition  of  highest  useful- 
ness. It  declares  a  principle  on  which  Lincoln  acted  in 
preparation  for  his  career,  and  the  advice  has  the 
authority  of  a  successful  business  man. 

Be  careful  about  the  odds  and  ends  of  your  time.  If  you  are 
tired  and  need  rest,  take  it,  that's  as  much  your  duty  as  to  be 
occupied.  But  look  out  and  guard  against  the  habit  of  loafing, 
of  murdering  time,  of  wasting  hours  that  once  gone  never  can 
be  reclaimed. 

In  your  later  lives  especially,  watch  the  fifteen  minutes  this 
morning  and  the  half-hour  at  noon  and  the  hour  at  night — those 
intervals  that  make  up  a  day  in  the  course  of  a  week  and  that 
might  be  given  to  some  good  deed.    After  a  large  stained-glass      .    . 
window  had  been  erected  in  a  noble  edifice  across  the  water,    window, 
an  artist  picked  up  the  discarded  fragments  of  glass  and  made 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  cathedral  windows  in  all  Europe.    So 
one  boy  will  pick  up  a  splendid  education  out  of  the  odds  and 
ends  of  the  time  which  he  carefully  saves,  as  against  another 
who  carelessly  throws  them  away. 

Two  mechanics  in  a  near-by  city  had  each  his  hour  at  noon. 
When  lunch  was  finished  one  busied  himself  in  studying  some 
improvements  in  the  machinery  he  was  using.  He  pegged 
away  patiently,  at  last  succeeded,  had  his  invention  patented, 
exchanged  his  overalls  for  broadcloth,  and  became  a  rich  and 
useful  man.  The  other  spent  his  time  in  teaching  a  dog  to 
stand  on  his  head  and  do  tricks,  and  at  last  accounts  was 
traveling  with  a  circus  at  ten  dollars  a  week,  matine'es 
thrown  in. 

We  have  free  common  schools,  but  most  of  our  youth 
leave  them  before  the  years  of  maturity  and  with  scant 
knowledge  of  the  vast  world  in  which  they  must  live, 
whose  conflicts  they  must  face,  whose  problems  they 
must  solve.  Evidently  the  common  school  can  do  no 
more  than  start  the  intellect  on  its  voyage  of  endless 
discovery.  Then  we  have  the  college  and  the  university. 


222 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Wasted  lives. 


The  modern 

cam]> 

meeting. 


But  these  are  for  the  elect  few  ;  and  many  a  college 
graduate,  caught  in  the  whirl  of  business,  forgets  his 
classics  and  his  science,  and  permits  his  better  faculties 
to  become  a  garden  of  weeds  and  briars.  College 
graduates  must  have  impetus  to  learn,  motive  to  con- 
tinue systematic  mental  activity,  incentive  to  assist  less 
favored  neighbors.  Then  we  have  the  public  library,  at 
least  in  progressive  towns  and  cities,  and  it  is  a  boon 
of  inestimable  value.  But  the  average  reader  is  lost 
in  the  labyrinths  of  literature.  Aimless,  purposeless, 
planless,  the  reader  is  often  more  injured  than  bene- 
fited by  contact  with  the  literary  treasures  of  dead 
or  absent  teachers.  The  principle  of  selection  is 
wanting.  The  clue  to  the  maze  must  be  put  in 
the  reader's  hand.  What  is  true  of  public 
libraries  is  even  more  true  of  newspapers.  For 
here  the  laws  of  choice  must  be  observed  in  order 
to  avoid  not  only  the  dyspepsia  of  surfeit  but  even  the 
poison  of  vice,  the  insanity  of  fragmentary  presentation 
of  detached  paragraphs.  The  broken  bits  must  be 
placed  in  the  general  scheme  of  color  and  outline 
which  compose  a  picture;  the  thread  of  history  must 
string  the  isolated  beads;  the  groundwork  of  philos- 
ophy must  give  unity  and  comprehensiveness  to  the 
jumble  of  impressions,  images,  stories,  statistics. 

The  old  fashioned  camp  meeting,  once  so  popular 
with  the  pioneers,  has  taken  on  the  form  of  summer 
assemblies  in  various  states  ;  some  of  them  having 
provided  simple  and  comfortable  cottages  with  care- 
ful attention  to  order  and  sanitary  conditions  of  the 
grounds ;  while  some  still  show  marks  of  frontier 
manners.  At  these  assemblies  the  ranting  revivalist 
has  been  succeeded  by  a  great  variety  of  entertainers, 
so  that  all  tastes  may  be  gratified.  Almost  invariably 


Voluntary  Organization  of  Education.       223 

the  entertainment  is  free  from  unclean  suggestion  and 
radically  anti-social  teaching.  All  subjects  are  dis- 
cussed, and  there  is  some  show  of  serious  class  study ; 
but  the  people  come  together  chiefly  for  rational  rec- 
reation, and  the  rigorous  tests  of  examinations  are  net 
ordinarily  welcorrfe. 

Conferences  are  held  in  the  interest  of  temperance 
reform,  kindergartens,  training  of  defectives,  micro- 
scopy, labor  movements,  social  settlements,  and  a 
hundred  others.  The  religious  meetings  bring  to- 
gether the  devout  in  congenial  companionship,  and 
on  Sunday  all  secular  themes  and  ordinary  amuse- 
ments are  set  aside,  while  the  most  attractive 
preachers  address  vast  congregations.  The  severity 
and  austerity  of  Puritanism  are  relaxed,  and  there  is 
plenty  of  enjoyment  in  boat  races,  athletic  sports, 
fireworks,  music,  and  humorous  recitations.  Usually 
the  dance  and  dramatic  representations  are  not  in 
favor,  because  they  are  not  recognized  by  many  of 
the  churches  as  suitable  forms  of  social  recreation. 

The  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  Van  Dyke  has  given  admirable 
expression  to  the  aim  of  this  religious  movement  culture  and 
on  behalf  of  popular  education.  "  I  believe  that 
democracy,  as  it  is  embodied  in  this  Republic  is,  next 
to  the  Christian  religion,  the  most  precious  possession 
of  mankind.  I  believe  that  it  can  be  preserved  only 
under  the  light  and  leading  of  true  culture,  which 
makes  the  demagogue  ridiculous,  the  anarchist  loath- 
some, the  plutocrat  impotent,  and  the  autocrat 
impossible.  I  believe  that  the  best  culture  is  that 
which  makes  not  selfish  and  sour  critics,  but  sane  and 
sober  patriots.  I  believe  that  no  man  has  the  right 
culture  unless  he  is  willing  to  put  his  clearer  vision, 
his  loftier  imagination,  and  his  deeper  thought  at  the 


224  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

service  of  his  country  and  humanity.  I  believe  in 
culture.  I  believe  in  democracy.  By  democracy 
purified,  by  culture  diffused.  God  save  the  state!  " 

Perhaps  it  is  through  the  C.  L.  S.  C.  (Chautauqua 

Literary  and  Scientific  Circle)  that  the  movement  has 

The  c.  L.  s.  c.  been  most  widely  felt.     From  its  central  office  by  its 

and  Home 

Reading.  secretary  this  agency  acts  all  the  year  around  and 

thousands  kindle  their  fires  at  this  torch.  First 
of  all  a  course  of  connected  reading  is  mapped  out  by  a 
competent  committee,  and  it  requires  four  years  to  com- 
plete the  required  work,  although  the  course  for  each 
year  is  a  unity  and  a  satisfactory  whole.  The  time 
is  laid  out  by  the  week  and  month.  A  monthly  maga- 
zine is  published  which  carries  the  reader  out  in  differ- 
ent directions  beyond  the  books.  Papers  for  reviews 
and  testing  examinations  are  prepared  for  those  who 
wish  to  use  them.  In  order  to  do  the  work  of  a  year  it 
is  necessary,  in  the  average,  to  devote  one  hour  daily 
for  nine  months.  A  certificate  is  given  to  those  who 
complete  a  course,  and  to  this  certificate  seals  are 
attached  as  evidence  of  advanced  and  collateral  reading. 
Brief  courses  are  provided  for  those  whose  time  is  very 
limited,  and  many  special  courses  are  laid  out  for  the 
large  number  who  desire  to  advance  in  particular  di- 
rections. 

Relation  to  The  circulars  distinctly  assert  that  "  the  circle  is  not 

college  work.         . 

in  any  sense  a  college,  either  in  its  course  of  study 
or  its  methods  of  work."  There  is  no  sham,  no  false 
pretense  about  the  department.  And  yet  it  is  true 
that  many  young  people  have  been  inspired  by  the 
circle  to  enter  college  and  pursue  their  studies  in 
regular  classes  ;  that  tens  of  thousands  who  could  not 
attend  college  have  gained  accurate  and  liberal  knowl- 
edge concerning  the  sciences,  the  literatures,  the  great 


Voluntary  Organization  of  Education.          225 

race  ideas  which  command  the  attention  of  college  stu- 
dents. 

Throughout  North  America,  in  church  parlors,  in 
homes,  in  rural  schoolhouses,  in  the  rooms  of  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  or  Young  Local  circles. 
Women's  Christian  Association,  may  be  found  groups 
of  readers  and  students  under  various  leadership.  It 
has  been  found  that  the  best  work  can  be  done  by 
young  people  if  they  assemble  in  companies,  discuss 
the  topics,  ask  and  answer  questions,  enjoy  sociable 
evenings,  promote  lectures,  provide  musical  enter- 
tainment and  interest  all  faculties  of  the  spirit.  By 
combination  museums  are  established,  magic  lanterns 
and  slides  can  be  rented,  maps  and  pictures  may  be 
purchased,  and  many  appliances  used  which  indi- 
viduals could  not  command.  Out  of  such  social  meet- 
ings local  improvement  associations  are  apt  to  grow, 
and  the  inspiration  of  new  ideals  seems  to  secure 
better  sanitation,  parks,  roads,  educational  agencies, 
and  other  means  of  general  wellbeing. 

Mr.  John  Fiske  said  :     "I  am  convinced  it  has  not 
been  equaled  by  any  other  system  of  popular  educa-  Opinions  of 

.  .  ...          the  value  of 

tion.  Dr.  J.  G.  Fitch,  English  inspector  of  training  Chautauqua. 
colleges,  said:  "It  seems  to  me  you  have  hit  upon 
one  of  the  most  admirable  and  fruitful  devices  ever  yet 
adopted  when,  by  means  of  reading  circles  and  corre- 
spondence helps,  the  solitary  student  has  opened  to  him 
what  he  shall  read  and  what  use  he  shall  make  of  his 
reading  when  he  has  it."  President  Garfield's  words 
seem  especially  significant  when  we  remember  the  efforts 
which  it  cost  him  to  secure  an  education.  ' '  It  has  been 
the  struggle  of  the  world  to  get  more  leisure,  but  it  has 
been  left  for  Chautauqua  to  show  how  to  use  it."-  And 
Dr.  E.  E.  Hale  :  ' '  After  the  general  system  of  public 


226 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Outgrowth. 


Women's 
clubs. 


school  instruction,  the  Chautauqua  system  is  the  most 
important  organized  system  of  education  at  work  in  the 
nation. ' ' 

In  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education, 
1894-5,  Page  1488,  may  be  found  a  "check  list"  of 
319  summer  schools,  with  address,  length  of  term, 
time  of  sessions,  character  of  course,  and  other  in- 
formation. 

The  Chautauqua  movement  has  been  fertile.  The 
Jews  and  the  Roman  Catholics,  encouraged  and  in- 
spired by  the  example,  have  established  similar  systems. 
Summer  schools  are  formed  all  over  the  country,  North 
and  South,  East  and  West.  Clubs  and  circles  quite  in- 
dependent of  Chautauqua  have  taken  up  its  ideas  and 
methods.  England  has  felt  the  influence  of  the  home 
reading  method.  The  students  of  the  circle  are  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world. 

No  survey  of  voluntary  educational  efforts  in  America, 
however  brief,  can  omit  the  women's  clubs.  The  actual 
functions  of  these  important  agencies  of  culture  are 
briefly  indicated  in  reports  collected  by  Mrs.  Henrotin. 
Four  hundred  and  ninety-five  clubs  were  united  in  the 
General  Federation  in  1896.  Of  these  fifty  were  pur- 
suing purely  literary  subjects.  In  the  department  clubs 
371  have  a  department  of  literature,  which  includes  art, 
science,  and  philosophy  ;  232  have  a  department  of 
education,  including  practical  work  in  kindergartens  and 
public  schools  ;  1 74  have  a  department  of  philanthropy, 
which  implies  sociology  as  applied  to  philanthropy, 
theoretical  and  practical ;  165  are  pursuing  household 
economics  ;  163  have  social  economics  as  applied  to  the 
history  and  practical  application  of  municipal  and  legis- 
lative work,  with  village  improvement  associations,  etc. 
These  organizations  would  justify  their  existence  and 


Voluntary  Organization  of  Education.          227 

cost  if  they  limited  their  activity  to  the  higher  education 
of  their  own  members  ;  for  women  have  a  right  to  the 
best  life  for  their  own  sake.  But  women  with  larger 
knowledge  see  the  social  needs  of  the  age  and  therefore 
give  attention  to  charity,  to  schools,  to  reforms,  to  all 
that  affects  home,  children,  happiness,  and  character. 

There  is  a  movement  to  establish  in  all  cities  institu- 
tions for  the  training  of  housekeepers  and  domestic  Household 
assistants  (called  "servants"  in  the  feudalistic  phrase- 
ology  which  marks  defective  democracy).  Many  intelli- 
gent women  desire  to  lift  household  work  to  its  true 
dignity  by  making  it  the  expression  of  a  scientific  and 
disciplined  culture.  Various  household  economic 
societies  are  fostering  this  tendency,  and  many  of  the 
women's  clubs  have  departments  especially  devoted  to 
this  backward  art  and  industry.  Something  more  is  re- 
quired than  a  merely  mechanical  and  routine  drill  in 
dish-washing  and  pie-making  according  to  fixed  recipes. 
Fundamental  studies  in  chemistry,  bacteriology,  physi- 
ology, sanitary  science,  must  prepare  wives,  mothers, 
and  their  assistants  for  the  intricate  business  of  making 
and  keeping  healthy  and  beautiful  homes.  And  this 
same  accurate  and  comprehensive  knowledge  will  fit 
women  to  be  inspectors  and  directors  of  schools,  coun- 
cillors of  cities,  reformers  of  customs  and  morals. 

The  agricultural  population  in  many  portions  of  the 
United  States  are  greatly  in  advance  of  those  in  all 
other  countries  in  accessibility  to  new  ideas.  They  use 
more  machinery  and  of  a  better  kind.  They  are  inven- 
tive and  progressive.  From  their  ranks  have  come 
many  of  the  first  men  in  our  national  history.  The 
great  organizations  of  farmers  have  promoted  the  inter- 
change of  ideas  and  have  quickened  their  intellectual  life. 

And   yet  there  are  many  difficulties  in  the  way  of 


228  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

literary  and  scientific  study.  The  farmers  are  isolated 
from  each  other.  A  visit  or  a  party  becomes  a  serious 
and  difficult  matter  when  the  winds  are  keen  and  frosty, 
or  the  roads  miry.  In  the  summer  labor  is  too  exhaust- 
ing to  leave  vitality  for  an  evening  class  or  discussion. 
Work  in  the  open  air  induces  sleepiness  after  the  hearty 
evening  meal.  There  is  not  that  constant  social  irrita- 
tion and  impetus  which  keeps  the  city  dweller  in  a  state 
of  mental  ferment. 

And  yet  the  farmers  should  not  rob  themselves  of  all 
participation  in  the  heritage  of  science  and  the  humani- 

Machinery  ties.  The  introduction  of  machinery  has  somewhat 
lightened  the  burdens  of  exhausting  toil.  The  sulky 
plow,  the  horse  rake,  and  the  steam  thresher  have  trans- 
ferred to  senseless  matter  part  of  the  strain  which  once 
wore  out  the  muscles  and  nerves  of  country  folk.  With 
better  roads,  postal  service,  schools,  cheap  books  and 
papers,  and  free  libraries  the  obstacles  to  culture  are 
gradually  melting  down. 

The  farmer  of  the  next  generation  must  know  more 
than  his  ancestors  or  go  to  the  wall.  No  tariff  can  help 
him  against  the  competition  of  the  wheat  plains  of  India, 
Siberia,  and  South  America.  Knowledge  is  power,  but 
only  to  him  who  knows.  Uncle  Sam  has  no  more  farms 
to  give  away.  The  trusts  are  making  a  profit  out  of 
what  ignorance  once  cast  aside.  Mining  experts  are 

Higher  working  over  rejected  ores  with  new  scientific  method. 

necessary! S  Agriculture  must  become  scientific.  The  clumsy,  waste- 
ful methods  which  were  suitable  and  economical  when 
free  land  was  abundant  must  be  succeeded  by  precise  cal- 
culations of  the  values  of  fertilizers,  plant  foods,  drains, 
and  machines.  The  farmers  have  come  to  see  this. 
The  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment  stations,  bul- 
letins, professional  papers,  and  the  general  press  have 


Voluntary  Organization  of  Education.          229 

had  influence.  Associations  for  discussion,  institutes, 
granges,  county  fairs  have  become  important  media  for 
the  interchange  of  technical  information. 

A  distinguished  director  of  agriculture  has  said  : 
' '  The  great  nations  of  Europe  strain  every  effort  to 
make  science  the  handmaid  of  war.  Let  it  be  the  glory 
of  the  great  American  people  to  make  science  the  hand- 
maid of  agriculture"  (Hon.  Jerry  Rusk). 

The  farmer  governor  of  Indiana,  Mr.  J.  A.  Mount, 
voices  the  true  aspiration  of  an  awakened  rural  popula- 
tion : 

I  have  never  favored,  nor  do  I  now  favor,  the  exclusive 
study  of  literature  pertaining  to  the  farm.  Let  the  reading  Higher 
circle  be  a  diversion  from  farm  topics  and  the  routine  of  farm  culture!5  * 
life.  .  .  .  The  gathering  of  farmers'  families,  alternately 
in  their  farmhouses,  and  spending  an  evening,  rendered 
enjoyable  by  social  good  cheer,  made  instructive  by  literary 
exercises,  and  enlivened  by  good  music,  cannot  fail  of  good 
results.  .  .  .  Our  rural  homes  must  be  surrounded  with 
elevating  influences,  and  afford  the  means  for  the  development 
of  cultured  men  and  women.  Let  these  homes  possess  the 
wealth  of  books,  the  charm  of  music,  and  the  fragrance  of 
flowers,  and  the  boys  will  not  spend  their  evenings  at  the 
village  store  in  the  fume  of  tobacco  smoke  and  the  atmos- 
phere of  stale  jokes. 

More's  Utopia  anticipated  University  Extension.  In 
that  happy  land,  far,  far  away  : 

It  is  a  solempne  custome  there  to  have  lectures  daylye  in  the 
morning,  where  to  be  presente  they  onely  be  constrained  that   university 
be  namely  chosen  and  appoynted  to  learninge.     Howbeit  a   Extension  in 
greate    multitude  of  every  sort  of  people,   both    men   and       opia' 
women,  go  to  heare  lectures,  some  one  and  some  another,  as 
everye  mans  nature  is  inclined. 

Mr.  George  Picot  has  given  articulate  expression  to 
the  social  incentives  of  the  scholar  : 
Every  person  ought  to  apportion  his  life  in  two  fields  ;  and 


230 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


The  social 
demand  for 
University 
Extension. 


The  duty  of 
scholars  to 
the  people. 


while  one  of  these  is  consecrated  to  the  duties  of  his  special 
profession  or  even  to  the  affairs  more  agreeable  to  his  taste, 
the  other  should  be  dedicated  to  those  collective  enterprises 
without  which  a  nation  would  be  a  collection  of  egoistic  beings 
without  common  bonds. 

Every  teacher  or  special  student,  in  the  course  of  his 
particular  studies,  comes  into  possession  of  certain 
general  ideas,  great  race  truths,  which  can  be  made 
clear  to  all  intelligent  citizens  and  which  are  essential 
to  the  common  welfare. 

It  is  true  that  a  chemist  or  geologist  cannot  put  in 
popular  form  any  part  of  his  processes  which  involve 
close  mathematical  reasoning  or  highly  intricate  meth- 
ods. But  all  sciences  of  nature,  language,  history, 
politics,  economics,  and  sociology  issue  in  certain  well- 
established  principles  which  can  be  stated  in  plain 
English  and  illustrated  from  familiar  experiences  and 
phenomena. 

The  University  Extension  movement  has  grown  out  of 
these  two  considerations,  that  scholars  are  in  possession 
of  truths  which  the  wide  world  needs  to  guide  its  con- 
duct and  enlarge  its  vision,  and  that  scholars  owe  a  part 
of  their  life  to  the  people  whose  labors  sustain  them  and 
whose  institutions  protect  them. 

It  is  not  implied  that  University  Extension  is  the  only 
method  of  popularizing  knowledge,  for  there  are  many 
methods.  It  is  not  asserted  that  all  college  professors 
are  under  obligation  to  give  public  lectures,  because  not 
all  have  the  gift  of  exposition,  and  many  are  so  engaged 
in  specialized  research  that  they  have  no  time  or 
strength  for  this  method  of  teaching.  But  it  is  claimed 
that  institutions  of  higher  culture,  as  soon  as  they  can 
command  the  means,  should  train  a  special  body  of 
instructors  and  keep  them  in  the  field  for  this  particular 


Voluntary  Organization  of  Education.          231 

educational  task.  Even  busy  professors  can  often  find 
time  for  occasional  courses  of  lectures  to  the  people. 
In  discussions  of  social  problems  the  teacher  will  often 
receive  as  much  as  he  gives,  and  return  to  his  study 
with  fresh  materials  for  elaboration.  Here  again  phi- 
lanthropy frequently  pays  ten  per  cent  on  investment. 
The  Hospital  illustrates  the  social  necessity  of  popu- 
larizing knowledge  : 

Science,  more  especially  physiological  and  medical  science, 
suffers  enormously  from    lack  of  able  exposition.    The  in-  social  necessity 
ventor,  the  man  who  has  a  "good  thing"  for  sale,  often  fails   of  popularizing 

science. 

to  realize  a  fortune  because  he  has  not  the  means  or  does  not 
know  the  best  methods  of  "placing  his  goods  upon  the 
market."  In  like  manner  discoveries  have  been  made  in 
science  from  time  to  time,  improvements  are  made  in  the  art 
of  healing,  which  remain  a  dead  letter  to  the  world,  sometimes 
for  years,  because  there  has  been  no  man  of  adequate  exposi- 
tory faculty  to  place  them  in  clear,  intelligent,  interesting,  and 
convincing  terms  before  all  those  who  have  actual  or  potential 
interest  in  them.  Sir  James  Simpson  had  not  the  merit  of 
discovering  chloroform,  nor  even  of  making  the  first  experi- 
ments with  it.  He  had  the  merit  of  so  convincing  the  medical 
mind  that  its  general  use  became  a  necessity  with  hardly  a 
day's  undue  delay.  But  the  real  discoverer  was  a  medical 
student  whose  name  is  unknown  to  most  of  the  medical  men 
of  our  own  time.  Science  which  is  not  adequately  expounded 
is  lost  to  the  world. 

Now,  while  it  is  true  that  we  have  a  multitude  of 
periodicals  and  newspapers  which  have  wide  circulation, 
and  these    printed    forms    are    useful    and    necessary 
agencies  of  exposition,  it  is  also  true  that  the  personal 
assistance  of  a  living  teacher  remains  the  most  impress-  Living 
ive,    economical,    and   expeditious   method   of  helping  l      ers* 
people  to  get  at  the  essential  elements  of  a  scientific  or 
literary  subject. 

When  the  old  Universities  of  Cambridge  and  Oxford 


232  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

began  to  awaken  from  their  selfishness  and  cloistered 
indifference  to  the  world's  needs,  their  apostolic  fervor, 
kindled  and  fanned  by  such  men  as  Dr.  Arnold  of 
Rugby,  took  many  forms  of  expression.  Missions 
were  manned  by  heroes.  Popular  traditions  of  error 
were  bravely  fought  down.  The  desire  seized  such 
spirits  as  Denison  and  Toynbee  to  tet  poor  men  share 
with  them  the  high  thoughts  of  the  ancient  seats  of 
learning.  Thus  University  Extension  came  to  be.  It  is 
a  movement  marked  by  many  failures  and  errors,  but 
also  by  many  triumphs. 

Three  general  methods  are  pursued.  The  "lecture- 
study  method"  provides  a  lecture,  popular  in  mode 
of  presentation,  but  given  by  a  specialist  in  his  own 
department.  In  order  to  fix  attention,  to  save  time 
from  note-taking,  and  to  preserve  a  permanent  outline 
of  the  lesson,  a  syllabus  of  the  lecture  is  distributed  in 
the  audience.  In  connection  with  the  lecture  an  oppor- 
tunity is  given  for  an  informal  discussion  and  confer- 
ence. A  list  of  books  is  printed  with  a  syllabus,  and  a 
traveling  library  containing  the  volumes  is  kept  in  the 
town  during  the  weeks  in  which  the  lecturer  is  making 
his  visits. 

The  ' '  correspondence  method ' '  is  designed  to  assist 
isolated  students  who  cannot  reside  at  college  and  who 
wish  to  be  under  the  direction  of  a  living  teacher.  In 
this  case  the  instructor  prepares  an  outline  of  topics, 
with  directions  for  reading  and  study,  and  the  student 
after  careful  use  of  the  instructions  returns  papers  and 
answers  for  criticism.  Excellent  results  have  been 
obtained  in  this  way  when  the  student  has  time  and 
books,  and  is  capable  of  sustained  effort  without  the 
spur  of  class  work. 

The    ' '  class-study   method ' '    does    not   differ  from 


Voluntary  Organization  of  Education.          233 

ordinary  college  work.  It  is  designed  for  persons  who 
must  recite  in  the  evening  and  can  give  only  a  part  of 
their  time  to  the  subject. 

In  all  these  methods  the  student  comes  into  direct 
relations  with  a  living  teacher,  and  the  personal  element 
is  found  to  be  very  valuable. 

Voluntary  agencies  have  their  opportunity  in  connec- 
tion with  the  splendid  movement  to  supply  reading  for  Libraries, 
the  people.  In  some  cities  rich  men  have  furnished  the 
building  and  a  fund,  or  have  given  the  first  "plant"  to 
the  community  upon  a  contract  that  the  institution 
should  afterward  be  maintained  at  public  cost.  The 
' '  traveling  libraries ' '  have  often  been  furnished  by 
wealthy  people  and  they  have  been  eagerly  and  grate- 
fully used  by  persons  who  lived  far  from  the  towns. 

A  beautiful  work  is  that  of  the  home  library  associa- 
tions. The  members  of  these  societies  purchase  a  few  libraries, 
carefully-selected  books,  attractively  bound  and  neatly 
arranged  in  a  portable  case.  This  miniature  public 
library  is  placed  in  care  of  a  family  in  a  quarter  of  the 
city  where  the  incentives  to  culture  are  as  meager  as  the 
opportunities.  The  managers  of  the  library  become  per- 
sonal friends  of  the  children  of  the  neighborhood  ;  read 
to  them  delightful  stories ;  show  them  pictures ;  talk 
with  them  about  the  subjects  of  the  books  ;  and  when 
the  set  of  works  has  performed  its  mission  it  is  ex- 
changed for  a  fresh  set,  which  may  have  been  busy  else- 
where. This  plan  requires  a  very  small  capital ;  it  offers 
a  very  natural  occasion  for  introducing  a  visitor  to  the 
poor ;  and  it  has  produced  the  most  delightful  fruits  of 
gracious  social  relations  and  eagerness  for  good  read- 
ing. By  such  means  vile  and  trashy  publications  can 
be  driven  out  and  a  taste  for  better  things  so  established 
as  to  make  them  positively  offensive.  It  is  very  well  to 


234 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


burn  pernicious  printed  stuff — it  cannot  be  called  ' '  lit- 
erature " — but  still  better  is  it  to  cultivate  a  taste  which 
revolts  at  the  unclean  and  demands  healthier  intellectual 
food. 

Social  settlements  and  University  Extension  had  their 
origin  in  the  same  time,  place,  and  inspiration.  The 
settlement  has  found  a  home  and  a  native  development 
in  American  cities.  The  "subjective  necessity,"  to  use 
Miss  Addams's  phrase,  is  what  we  call  the  "social 
spirit."  "It  is  more  blessed  to  give  than  to  receive." 
A  true  culture  is  communicative.  A  right  education 
increases  sociability  and  sharpens  conscience.  A  whole- 
some education  makes  the  mind  creative.  A  mother  is 
never  hired  to  make  sacrifices  for  her  child  ;  it  is  natural 
to  her.  If  the  ideas  of  Pestalozzi  really  take  possession 
of  family,  school,  and  college  instruction  and  discipline, 
the  philanthropists  will  come  forth  burning  with  social 
zeal.  If  the  ethical  philosophy  of  T.  H.  Green,  the 
life-giving  sayings  of  Carlyle,  the  humanitarian  periods 
of  Mazzini,  the  poetic  creations  of  Lowell,  the  divine 
messages  of  Channing  and  Phillips  Brooks  ever  enter 
the  red  blood  of  a  scholar,  then  a  new  spiritual  birth 
occurs.  And  if  the  contemporary  and  indwelling  Christ 
comes  to  his  throne  in  the  heart  there  is  ready,  if  need 
be,  the  martyr,  the  hero,  or  heroine.  To  be  sure,  the 
real  martyr  is  never  conscious  of  doing  any  extraor- 
dinary thing.  It  is  all  so  natural  for  a  large  soul  to  do 
a  generous  deed  and  not  know  it  to  be  such.  ' '  When 
saw  we  Thee  a  hungered  and  gave  Thee  meat  ? ' ' 

Then  Miss  Addams  tells  us  there  is  an  "objective 
necessity ' '  for  social  settlements.  The  form  taken  by 
philanthropy  is  fixed  by  the  mold  of  circumstances. 
Within  a  few  decades  the  great  industry  has  come  to 
dominate  our  life.  It  masses  people  in  cities.  It 


Voluntary  Organization  of  Education.          235 

divides  rich  from  poor.  It  separates  the  population 
geographically  and  socially,  and  sets  them  down  in 
camps  of  indifferent  or  even  hostile  citizens.  People 
live  in  the  same  town,  work  under  the  same  roof,  and 
yet  never  touch  each  other  in  school,  or  church,  or 
hall.  The  non-conducting  class  spirit  breaks  the  elec- 
tric current  of  social  sympathy. 

But  it  is  this  same  colossal  and  imperious  great 
industry  which  increases  the  democratic  feeling  and  the 
class  consciousness  of  wage-earners.  Wage-earners  are  Democratic 

0  '  .  feeling. 

not  the  "poor"  of  Charles  Booth's  analysis.  The 
' '  workingmen ' '  hate  charity.  To  offer  it  to  them 
either  offends  or  crushes  them.  They  want  justice  and 
they  unite  to  get  rights.  They  feel  the  slights  of  the 
rich  and  the  well-dressed.  By  living  with  persons  of 
the  same  occupations  they  form  a  class  feeling  which  is 
not  a  national  feeling,  and  make  a  public  opinion  of 
their  own.  Even  the  public  school  in  great  cities  does 
not  unite  the  classes,  because  the  well-to-do  and  the 
wealthy  live  in  their  own  part  of  town  or  send  their 
children  to  private  schools. 

This  moral  alienation  is  fraught  with  dangers  to  the 
commonwealth.  It  makes  city  government  more  diffi- 
cult and  corrupt.  It  enfeebles  the  influence  of  religion 
and  art  on  common  life. 

The  settlement  is  primarily  a  person,  not  a  system  or 
a  contrivance.  The  very  essence  of  it  is  the  gift  of 
one's  self  to  a  certain  locality.  One  who  has  nothing  personal  factor, 
superior  to  impart,  or  who  has  no  talent  for  fellowship^ 
or  who  thinks  of  self-display  as  a  patron  or  Lady 
Bountiful,  cannot  make  a  true  settlement — not  if  there 
were  a  legacy  of  a  half  million  of  dollars  to  support  the 
scheme.  Working  people  are  clairvoyant.  They  dis- 
cover shams,  sometimes  where  they  do  not  exist.  They 


236  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

are  sensitive — and  who  can  blame  them?  Hence,  one 
must  be  a  real  democrat  to  be  of  any  value.  The  least 
skepticism  as  to  the  capacity  of  the  plain  people  for  all 
that  is  really  noble  and  valuable  in  art,  in  religion,  in 
the  essentials  of  high  living,  is  fatal  to  the  leader  or 
resident.  No  one  should  attempt  the  life  without  a 
period  of  probation. 

Stereotyped  plans  are  of  no  value.      The  resident  be- 
Methods.  comes  a  citizen.     He  discovers  certain   needs — better 

sewers,  sanitation,  lights,  houses,  libraries,  schools, 
police,  poor  relief,  political  customs.  In  order  to 
remedy  the  evils  and  promote  the  health,  happiness, 
and  progress  of  the  neighborhood  he  acts  as  he  would 
anywhere.  He  discovers  the  best  people,  the  salt, 
the  "saving  remnant"  in  the  street  or  ward.  There 
are  conferences  and  discussions.  There  is  division 
of  labor.  One  set  believe  the  sun  of  life  rises  and 
sets  in  entertainments,  and  they  start  out  to  supplant 
the  low  variety  theater.  There  are  people  who  enjoy 
music,  and  they  organize  to  expel  bad  spirits,  as  David 
did,  with  harp  and  psaltery  and — dance  !  There  are 
others  who  have  not  bowed  the  knee  to  the  ward 
"boss,"  who  have  discovered  that  he  is  vulnerable, 
and  they  know  his  tricks  dark  and  vain.  These  people 
with  a  genius  for  political  war  join  hands  to  put  a  decent 
gl  s'  shoemaker  in  place  of  a  boodle  saloon-keeper  in  the  city 
council.  Still  others  wish  to  promote  a  finer  worship,  a 
more  real  and  human  religion  ;  and  so  there  comes  to 
be  a  pleasant  Sunday  afternoon,  or  some  additional  help 
to  the  neighboring  churches.  Thus  life  in  its  fullness  is 
defended  and  assisted  ;  and  this  is  a  social  settlement. 
For  a  list  of  clubs  and  classes  of  all  colors  and  kinds,  for 
baseball,  football,  German,  embroidery,  dancing,  Bible 
classes,  foreign  travel,  flower  missions,  coal  purchase, 


Voluntary  Organization  of  Education.          237 

book-keeping,  cooking,  painting,  dressmaking,  kinder- 
gartens, creches,  and  all  the  rest  one  can  consult  the 
bulletins  of  the  settlements.  But  such  printed  exhibits 
can  tell  little  to  one  who  has  not  by  visits  or  work  or 
residence  entered  into  the  sacred  intimacies  of  the  life 
itself. 

Among  the  most  remarkable  manifestations  of  the 
confidence  of  Americans  in  education  are  the  gifts  of  in-  Missionary 
dividuals  and  churches  for  schools  among  the  Indians 
and  negroes,  the  "wards  of  the  nation."  Various 
denominational  societies  have  raised  and  expended 
vast  sums  for  these  institutions. 

We  give  an  illustration  of  the  spirit  and  method  of 
this  educational  philanthropy.  In  1882  Mr.  John 
F.  Slater,  of  Connecticut,  gave  $1,000,000  for  the 
uplifting  of  the  colored  population  of  the  South.  The 
income  of  this  fund  was  to  be  devoted  to  education,  and 
it  was  stipulated  that  instruction  should  be  on  a  broad 
but  positive  Christian  basis.  All  schools  assisted  must 
provide  manual  training  to  fit  the  youth  for  industry. 
The  annual  appropriations  are  nearly  $36,000,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  year  1894  tne  trustees  had  distributed 
$439,981.  In  the  year  1896  $5,000- was  given  to  "em- 
ploy pious  and  intelligent  women  to  travel  in  the  rural 
districts  of  Virginia  and  Alabama  to  start  mothers' 
meetings,  where  the  average  ignorant  woman,  who  can- 
not now  hope  to  receive  an  education,  may  at  least  be 
taught  the  way  to  keep  a  decent  home,  and  to  elevate 
the  moral  standard  of  her  humble  life. ' ' 

Out  of  many  splendid  examples  of  the  union  of  all 
social  motives  we  may  select  the  school  of  which  Booker  Aiabaml, egee> 
T.   Washington,   a  negro  of  fine  ability,  is  principal,   industrial" 
This  remarkable  man  won  his  way  through  poverty  to 
an  education  at  the  Hampton  School.     In  1881,  with 


238  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

$8,000  furnished  by  General  Marshall,  of  Boston,  Mr. 
Washington  started  a  school  with  one  teacher  and  thirty 
pupils.  A  recent  report  shows  eighty-eight  officers 
and  teachers  and  1,231  pupils,  2,500  acres  of  land 
and  forty  buildings.  Their  property  is  valued  at 
$300,000.  The  state  appropriated  $2,000  a  year  to 
aid  the  enterprise.  This  history  is  typical  of  the 
spirit  and  method  of  educational  progress. 

In  1866  Mr.  George  Peabody  gave  $2,500,000  for  the 
Peabodyfund.     promotion  of  popular  education  in  the  South.     After- 
ward he  added  another  million  dollars.     A  sum  equal 
to  the  original  gift  has  been  distributed  and  the  principal 
remains  for  further  beneficence. 

The  first  appropriations  were  made  to  selected  schools  and 
towns  and  cities,  to  educational  journals  and  agents,  for  the 
purpose  of  creating  a  sentiment  in  favor  of  free  education 
supported  by  public  taxation.  When  this  sentiment  was  well 
developed  special  efforts  were  made  to  induce  the  states  to 
organize  public-school  systems  and  make  them  a  part  of  the 
organic  life  of  the  commonwealths ;  and  when  this  end  had 
been  attained  there  was  a  gradual  withdrawal  of  grants  for 
local  schools,  and  a  concentration  of  the  income  upon  schools 
and  institutes  for  training  teachers.  (  The  Independent,  Decem- 
ber 17,  1896.) 

Enlightened  philanthropy  has  before  it  a  serious  and 
Vacation  hopeful  field  in  the  care  of  poor  children  during  the 

summer  when  regular  work  of  the  public  schools  is  sus- 
pended. Then  the  little  ones  are  turned  wild  upon  the 
streets,  or  shut  up  in  small  rooms  to  torment  weary  and 
overtaxed  mothers.  The  year's  work  of  teachers  is  un- 
done. Habits  of  order  are  broken  up.  Temptations 
assail  the  idle  on  every  hand. 

School  colonies  or  vacation  schools  for  the  poor  chil- 
dren were  first  tried  in  Zurich,  Switzerland,  in  1876, 
and  have  passed  into  other  European  countries.  They 


Voluntary  Organization  of  Education.          239 

are  supported  by  benevolent  societies  in  conjunction 
with  the  public  authorities.  The  plan  includes  the 
opening  of  the  schoolrooms  for  informal  work  and  en- 
tertainment under  the  direction  of  a  competent  teacher  ; 
picnic  excursions  to  parks,  lakes,  rivers,  and  the 
country  ;  and,  best  of  all,  a  sojourn  of  several  days 
upon  farms.  The  schools  of  several  cities,  aided  by 
enterprising  philanthropists,  have  already  made  a  prom- 
ising beginning  of  this  beautiful  work.  For  example,  in 
New  York  City  six  schools  were  opened  in  the  neighbor-  Example, 
hoods  crowded  with  poor  families.  The  number  of  chil- 
dren who  enjoyed  these  privileges  was,  in  1894,  2,100  ; 
in  1895,  5,225  ;  and  in  1896,  6,762.  As  the  numbers 
increased  the  per  capita  cost  decreased.  The  expense 
each  day  for  each  child  was,  in  1894,  11.7  cents;  in 
I895,  5-6  cents  ;  in  1896  it  was  only  4.9  cents.  The 
expense  for  each  teacher  was  $75  for  the  season.  In 
other  cities  the  most  encouraging  results  have  been 
obtained.  The  young  people  whose  parents  are  able  to 
send  them  out  to  green  fields  and  mountains,  to  seaside 
resorts  and  foreign  travel,  should  not  forget  those  who 
are  shut  up  within  the  furnace-hot  walls  of  city  tene- 
ments and  streets. 


Play  and  art. 


Teaching  of 
physiology. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

SOCIALIZED    BEAUTY   AND    RECREATION. 

The  most  trivial  question  acquires  dignity  when  it  touches 
the  well-being  or  rouses  the  passions  of  many  millions.—./.  R. 
Lowell. 

THERE  is  a  deep  organic  relation  between  the  play 
instincts  and  art.  The  men  of  the  Reformation  and  of 
English  puritanism  failed  to  appreciate  this  factor  in  life 
at  its  full  value.  They  thought  of  duty  and  of  work, 
and  they  became  industrious,  rich,  powerful,  morally 
and  religiously  the  leaders  of  the  world.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  men  of  the  Renaissance  discovered  another 
side  of  life,  its  joy,  its  charm,  its  passion,  its  human 
worth.  It  is  coming  time  to  wed  the  Reformation  and  the 
Renaissance,  the  glory  of  integrity  and  the  grace  of  art, 
for  both  come  from  the  one  divine  source,  and  their 
separation  is  perilous  to  all  social  interests.  Some  men 
and  women  have  already  united  them  in  a  very  high 
degree,  as  the  classical  Milton  sought  to  do  when  puri- 
tanism was  fighting  its  way  to  recognition. 

There  is  a  physiological  need  for  play  and  for  beauty. 
The  joints  stiffen  and  the  muscles  remain  undeveloped  if 
youth  is  passed  in  the  mere  mechanical  processes  of 
"useful"  labor.  Free  play,  whose  end  is  in  itself, 
which  is  undisturbed  by  the  care  for  something  beyond, 
is  a  necessary  condition  of  a  sound  body,  a  long  life, 
an  even  temper,  and  a  cheerful  and  wholesome  dispo- 
sition. The  most  difficult  tasks  become  light  if  done  in 
sport.  Mark  Twain's  story  of  the  way  in  which  Tom 

240 


Socialized  Beauty  and  Recreation.  241 

Sawyer  made  his  comrades  do  a  disagreeable  and 
tedious  piece  of  whitewashing  is  an  illustration  taken 
from  life.  That  father  who  induced  his  boy  to  clear  the 
field  of  mullein  and  other  weeds  by  calling  them  hostile 
Indians  to  be  exterminated  with  a  sword  made  out  of 
an  old  scythe-blade  understood  human  nature. 

Beauty  is  not  for  something  else,  it  is  a  good  in  itself. 
A  tree  which  bears  no  fruit,  if  it  is  symmetrical  and 
casts  a  grateful  shade,  does  yet  bear  fruit  in  an  inward 
satisfaction  of  the  soul.  In  the  inspired  vision  of  that 
lost  paradise  for  which  we  human  wanderers  are  still 
seeking  through  the  centuries,  it  is  said,  ' '  The  Lord 
God  made  to  grow  every  tree  that  is  pleasant  to  the 
sight,  and  good  for  food."  There  is  a  clear  distinction 
between  the  mere  animal  satisfaction  and  the  aesthetic 
pleasure.  In  the  revelation  of  the  City  of  God  all  jewels 
and  precious  metals  become  symbols  of  the  glory 
and  beauty  of  streets  and  walls.  The  huckster  and 
auctioneer  see  the  dollar  mark  on  the  frame  of  a  picture 
and  cry  its  worth  in  terms  of  currency ;  but  the  amateur 
or  the  artist  gazes  upon  the  Sistine  Madonna  or  upon 
sunset  colors  with  a  wonder  and  worship  which  it  would 
be  cruel  to  disturb  with  low  talk  about  prices  and 
markets.  Beauty  is  a  good  apart  from  money  values 
and  lower  uses.  It  is  a  pearl  of  great  price  for  which 
coarse  wealth  may  be  lavished.  The  end  of  a  tedious 
and  costly  journey  is  reached  when  one  stands  in 
rapture  in  Lincoln  Cathedral  or  before  Angelo's  Moses. 

These  assertions  of  the  ultimate  value  of  music, 
poetry,  pictures,  dramas,  operas,  can  no  more  be 
' '  proved ' '  than  religion  can  be  demonstrated  to  the 
unsusceptible.  If  the  man  is  color  blind  an  army  of 
witnesses  could  not  make  him  see  the  difference  be- 
tween green  and  violet.  Fortunately  most  human 


242 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Song  of  nature. 


Closed  doors. 


beings,  of  the  higher  races,  in  their  normal  condition, 
can  be  awakened  to  interest  in  beautiful  objects  by  the 
sight  or  hearing  of  them. 

Whence  and  why 

Man's  tender  pain,  man's  inward  cry, 
When  he  doth  gaze  on  earth  and  sky  ? 
I  am  not  overbold  : 

I  hold 

Full  powers  from  Nature  manifold. 
I  speak  for  each  no-tongued  tree 
That,  spring  by  spring,  doth  nobler  be, 
And  dumbly  and  most  wistfully 
His  mighty  prayerful  arms  outspreads 
Above  men's  oft-unheeding  heads, 
And  his  big  blessing  downward  sheds. 
I  speak  for  all-shaped  blooms  and  leaves, 
Lichens  on  stones  and  moss  on  eaves, 
Grasses  and  grains  in  ranks  and  sheaves  ; 
Broad  fronded  ferns  and  keen-leaved  canes, 
And  briery  mazes  bounding  lanes, 
And  marsh-plants,  thirsty-cupped  for  rains, 
And  milky  stems  and  sugary  veins. 

Yea,  all  fair  forms,  and  sounds,  and  lights, 
And  warmths,  and  mysteries,  and  mights, 
Of  Nature's  utmost  depths  and  heights. 

So,  Nature  calls  through  all  her  system  wide, 
Give  me  thy  love,  O  man,  so  long  denied. 

But  oh,  the  poor  !  the  poor  !  the  poor  ! 
That  stand  by  the  inward-opening  door 
Trade's  hand  doth  tighten  ever  more, 
And  sigh  their  monstrous  foul-air  sigh 
For  the  outside  hills  of  liberty, 
Where  Nature  spreads  her  wild  blue  sky 
For  Art  to  make  into  melody  ! 
Thou  Trade  !  thou  king  of  modern  days  ! 
Change  thy  ways, 


Socialized  Beauty  and  Recreation.  243 

Change  thy  ways  ; 
Let  the  sweaty  laborers  file 

A  little  while, 

A  little  while, 
Where  Art  and  Nature  sing  and  smile. 

— Sidney  Lanier,  "  The  Symphony." 

There  are  many  excellent  folks  who  can  see  the  use  of 
art  when  they  can  be  persuaded  that  it  will  prevent 
pauperism,  vice,  and  crime.  There  are  some  very  use- 
ful  citizens  who  never  get  beyond  that  conception  of  teaut>'- 
"reform."  They  seldom  reflect  upon  the  notion  that 
the  bad  people  might  attain  that  level  of  virtue  which  is 
just  above  the  jail  and  the  almshouse  and  yet  not  be 
very  attractive  members  of  society.  Few  of  us  would 
think  we  had  achieved  any  remarkable  or  praiseworthy 
success  if  our  highest  claim  to  respect  was  that  we  had 
never  been  arrested  for  drunkenness.  Apparently  there 
are  very  zealous  reformers  who  would  find  this  a  terribly 
dull  world  if  there  were  no  idols  to  smash,  no  idiots 
to  feed,  no  lepers  to  cleanse,  no  drunkards  to  sign  total 
abstinence  pledges.  If  we  permit  ourselves  to  reflect  a 
moment  we  can  see  that  where  "  reforms  "  come  to  an 
end  the  real  humanity  begins  to  appear.  Beauty  and 
play  are  valuable  reformatory  agents. 

Dr.  E.  Chadwick  notices  the  effects  of  closing  up  the 
walks  and  open  grounds  in  Scotland.  The  only  remain- 
ing places  of  entertainment  being  the  public  houses,  the 
people  went  there  for  social  intercourse,  and  drunken-  „ 

The  Sabbath  in 

ness  greatly  increased.  At  the  time  of  which  he  writes  Scotland, 
the  Sabbath  was  observed  with  Judaic  strictness,  but 
drunkenness  and  other  vices  were  worse  than  in  England 
or  Ireland.1  The  Sabbath  has  no  reforming  power  if  its 
hours  are  left  empty  and  ugly.  Probably  it  would  be 
better  for  many  people  to  work  on  Sunday  than  spend 

l"  Health  of  Nations,"  Vol.  I.,  Chaps.  XII.  and  XIII. 


244 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Expert  valua- 
tions of  play. 


Testimony  of 
Jevons. 


the  time  as  they  do  in  debauch.  Saint  Monday  wears  a 
sad  face  among  the  laborers  whose  pleasures  are  purely 
animal.  The  guilt  of  neglect  is  enhanced  now  that  we 
know  by  experiment  the  moral  influence  of  pictures, 
music,  and  green  parks  made  charming  with  flowers. 
Permanent  reforms  are  carried  by  substitution. 

Mr.  G.  E.  Johnson  has  written  a  special  paper  on 
education  by  plays  and  games,  and  gives  an  estimate  of 
the  value  of  440  recreations.  He  has  gathered  testimo- 
nies of  masters  of  the  art  of  teaching  which  it  is  worth 
while  to  consider.  ' '  Play  is  the  first  poetry  of  the 
human  being.  It  is  the  working  off  at  once  of  the  over- 
flow of  both  mental  and  physical  powers"  (Richter). 
"Man  is  wholly  man  only  when  he  plays"  (Schiller). 
4 '  Education  should  begin  with  the  right  direction  of 
children's  sport."  "The  plays  of  children  should  be 
along  the  line  of  their  future  occupation."  "Do  not 
use  compulsion,  but  let  education  be  a  sort  of  amuse- 
ment" (Plato).  "Instruction  should  be  amusing  to 
the  child  "  (Quintilian).  "  Children  should  have  enter- 
taining employment"  (Aristotle).  "Plays  are  effica- 
cious in  education"  (Fenelon).  "Studies  should  be 
made  amusing  and  interesting"  (Rabelais).  "Play  is 
the  purest,  most  spiritual  activity  of  men  at  this  stage, 
and  at  the  same  time  typical  of  human  life  as  a  whole,  of 
inner  hidden  natural  life  in  men  and  in  all  things.  It 
holds  the  sources  of  all  that  is  good.  The  plays  of  chil- 
dren are  the  germinal  leaves  of  all  later  life. ' ' 

A  serious  economist  like  Jevons  says,  with  careful 
emphasis  :  "  Among  the  means  toward  a  higher  civili- 
zation, I  unhesitatingly  assert  that  the  deliberate  culti- 
vation of  public  amusement  is  a  principal  one."  Among 
the  agencies  he  mentions  as  having  already  had  a  civili- 
zing influence  on  English  workingmen  are  expositions, 


Socialized  Beauty  and  Recreation.  245 

theaters,  science  lectures.  But  he  sets  music  in  the 
highest  place  because  it  can  be  enjoyed  sitting  down,  in  £ugiacntages  of 
a  posture  of  restful  repose  ;  it  is  absolutely  pure  and  re- 
mote from  trivial  ideas  ;  and  it  is,  more  than  any  other 
power  of  excitement,  devoid  of  reaction  and  of  injurious 
effects  of  any  kind.  Musical  gifts  are  widely  diffused 
and  the  art  is  socializing.  Every  town  and  village  can 
easily  have  its  bands  and  chorus. 

But  play  and  art  have,  even  on  this  lower  level  of 
social  ministry,  a  considerable  and  demonstrable  value. 
Music  has  charms  to  soothe  the  savage  breast.  Pictures 
redeem  a  garret  from  extreme  vulgarity.  Lowell,  in 
his  essay  on  the  American  Tract  Society,  written  before 
emancipation,  laid  bare  with  just  severity  the  helpless, 
futile,  and  irrational  mode  of  dealing  with  degraded 
men  by  merely  negative  means.  When  the  negro 
required  education,  liberty,  opportunity,  and  help,  it 
was  not  enough  to  publish  tracts.  ' '  They  would  hold 
their  peace  about  the  body  of  Cuffee  dancing  to  the 
music  of  the  cart-whip,  provided  only  they  could  save 
the  soul  of  Sambo  alive  by  presenting  him  a  pamphlet, 
which  he  could  not  read,  on  the  depravity  of  the  double 
shuffle." 

The  wants  of  civilized  and  progressive  people  multi- 
ply in  number  and  rise  in  rank.  Savages  have  few  and  Many  patterns 
simple  wants,  but  those  are  fiery  and  devouring  pas- 
sions. The  influence  of  the  highest  religion  does  not 
issue  in  monasticism  or  asceticism,  but  in  abundant  life. 
Meat  will  not  gratify  the  desire  for  music  ;  a  symphony 
will  not  quench  thirst ;  a  prayer  is  not  a  substitute  for 
out-door  exercise.  There  is  a  time  for  everything. 
Piety  does  not  remove  the  demand  for  recreation,  or  for 
pictures,  or  for  song.  Healthy  religion  flows  into  all 
the  interests  of  existence  and  sanctifies  them. 


246 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


The  drama. 


Principles  of 
discrimination. 


The  heirs  of  the  Reformation  and  of  puritanism  have 
never  quite  forgiven  Shakespeare,  the  greatest  soul 
who  has  lived  since  the  prophets,  for  being  an  actor. 
We  see  the  vice  of  the  theater.  We  dread  the  stage 
and  the  greenroom.  But  we  have  not  worked  our 
way  to  clear  thought  and  just  discriminations  on  the 
subject.  Our  church  rules  and  our  social  standards 
are  in  a  state  of  confusion,  full  of  contradictions  and 
weakness.  We  have  nothing  consistent  to  say  to  youth. 
Our  appeals  are  hopelessly  uncritical  and  without 
authority.  Meantime  our  young  people  go  without 
principles,  without  guidance  and  insight.  Every  one 
knows  that  church  discipline  has  broken  down  abso- 
lutely in  cities,  so  far  as  dramatic  entertainments  are 
concerned.  Some  churches  have  attempted  to  meet 
the  deep  and  universal  craving  for  impersonations  of 
character  and  life  by  giving  shows  of  their  own — 
frequently  awkward,  cheap,  miserable  failures.  De- 
nunciations without  discrimination  shoot  over  the  mark. 
Mere  harangues  about  "  worldliness "  react  upon  the 
speaker  and  rob  him  of  moral  influence,  and  give 
ground  for  accusing  him  of  injustice. 

We  have  reached  something  like  a  sane  and  defen- 
sible method  of  dealing  with  books  and  papers,  with 
fiction  and  poetry.  We  have  worked  out  principles  of 
discrimination.  No  longer  do  we  indulge  in  declama- 
tion against  all  novels  without  critical  measurement, 
but  we  select  the  wholesome,  grade  the  volumes 
according  to  ages,  and  use  the  mighty  art  of  story- 
telling as  a  vehicle  of  noble  sentiment.  Polluting 
printed  matter  we  hunt  down  and  consign  to  the  flames, 
and  have  the  conscience  of  the  people  with  us,  as  we 
have  definite  laws  in  favor  of  these  summary  methods. 

There  is  no  reason  why  we  should  not  arrive  at  just  as 


Socialized  Beauty  and  Recreation.  247 

/ 

clear  and  definite  standards  in  relation  to  the  dramatic 
art.  Give  to  criticism  of  the  stage  the  same  quantity 
and  quality  of  study  as  has  been  given  to  fiction  and 
dramatic  writings,  and  the  church  could  build  up  an 
intelligible  and  defensible  standard  which  would  com- 
mand the  respect  of  moral  men  and  women  and  finally 
influence  legislation  and  administration.  The  reform  of 
the  regular  theater  is,  it  is  admitted,  one  of  the  most 
difficult  tasks  before  us  ;  but  it  must  be  resolutely 
attacked  and  patiently  pursued  if  we  are  to  rescue  it 
from  the  powers  of  evil  and  compel  it  to  minister  to  the 
education  of  society  in  all  that  is  noble  and  worthy. 
It  is  difficult  to  reform  municipal  politics  and  many 
other  ancient  evils,  but  the  good  citizen  does  not 
despair. 

Americans  have  yet  to  develop  a  defensible  criticism 
of  other  forms  of  art.  What  could  be  more  confusing 
than  much  of  the  current  declamation  against  "the  Pictures  and 

..  ,  ,  ,      ,  statues. 

nude,  as  if  garments  could  even  conceal  the  most 
pernicious  suggestions  of  baseness.  As  we  gradually 
produce  a  native  school  of  sculptors  and  painters  we 
may  be  able  to  evolve  a  code  of  criticism  which  will 
leave  us  all  that  is  beautiful  and  which  will  destroy  all 
that  can  really  harm  the  soul  and  corrupt  morals.  But 
so  long  as  the  people  are  deprived  of  great  works  of 
art  they  will  be  unable  to  see  in  pictures  or  statues  any 
aesthetic  value,  and  will  think  of  them  with  the  eye  of 
lust  or  avarice.  But  the  nobler  day  has  already 
dawned.  We  have  at  work  teachers  of  good  taste  and 
high  purpose  who  are  interpreting  for  us  the  meaning  of 
line,  form,  color,  expression  in  the  aspects  of  nature 
and  in  the  numan  body. 

There  are  two  forms  of  aesthetic  enjoyment,  passive 
appreciation  and  active  creation.  The  audience  at  a 


248  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

concert  or  play,  the  spectators  of  a  ball  game  or  a 
running  match,  have  a  very  keen  pleasure  in  receiving 
impressions  on  eye  and  ear.  But  creative  energy 
yields  a  higher  delight.  From  this  point  of  view  it 
seems  desirable  not  only  to  employ  professional  artists 
to  entertain  us  and  set  before  us  the  most  perfect 
standards  of  professional  training,  but  also  to  bring  out 
Develop  all  local  gifts  of  every  variety  —  song,  instrumental 

native  talent.  J 

music,  bands,  readers,  elocutionists,  interpreters  of  sci- 
ence and  literature,  and  talents  for  modeling,  carving, 
drawing,  painting.  Our  social  settlements  have  shown 
very  clearly  that  the  poorest  people  can  appreciate 
the  best  music  and  pictures,  and  that  they  and  their 
children  have  unsuspected  resources  of  entertainment 
within  themselves. 

Many  a  sluggish  intelligence  has  been  awakened  by 
the  old-fashioned  spelling-match,  by  amateur  theatri- 
cals, by  a  whistling  chorus,  or  by  a  debate  on  some 
matter  of  current  interest.  And  every  time  a  man 
comes  into  the  conscious  enjoyment  of  a  new  activity  he 
is  armed  with  a  new  weapon  against  vile  lusts  and 
irregular  appetites. 

There  is  one  great  art  which  every  family  in  the 
Art  helps  nation  can  help  to  cultivate  and  which  all  local  govern- 

nature.  .      .  .  . 

ments  and  associations  can  assist — the  art  of  making  the 
face  of  nature  beautiful. 

Miss  Mary  C.  Robins,  in  an  interesting  series  of 
articles  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  suggests  the  central 
principle  of  the  social  movement  for  making  the  land- 
scape attractive  and  pleasing  : 

It  is  in  dealing  with  nature  that  we  can  best  find  an  oppor- 
tunity to  gratify  our  need  for  a  great  art,  an  art  the  people 
want,  an  art  they  can  love,  one  that  will  give  them  true  joy, 
that  will  appeal  to  the  humblest  and  the  wisest  alike  ;  for  we 


Socialized  Beauty  and  Recreation.  249 

crave  something  popular  to  please  the  masses,  something 
large  to  gratify  the  race  instinct  for  the  colossal,  something 
bold  and  far-reaching  to  strike  an  answering  chord  in  every 
American  heart.  Ours  must  be  an  art  that  men  are  ready  to 
pay  for. 

Where  shall  we  begin  ?  Perhaps  with  a  window 
garden  overlooking  an  alley  in  a  crowded  city.  At 
least  one  spot  shall  have  color.  A  pot  of  earth  and  a 
few  seeds  may  give  hints  of  Eden.  Or  if  the  home  is  a 
cottage,  with  space  between  wall  and  walk  for  a  few 
plants,  that  narrow  plot  shall  tell  the  passer-by  a  story 
of  contentment,  peace,  and  aspiration,  and  make  him 
wish  as  pretty  a  picture  for  the  eyes  of  his  own  wife  and 
children.  The  rude  laborer  may  be  redeemed  from  his 
cups  and  his  degrading  pleasures  by  the  garden  and  the 
flowers. 

Or  it  may  be  we  think  of  a  grave,  marked  now  by 
sunken  ground,  overgrown  with  grass  and  weeds,  these  God's  acre, 
in  the  cemetery  outside  the  town.  All  the  graves 
around  it  are  neglected.  Why  not  invite  the  neigh- 
bors to  help  rebuild  the  fence,  to  mow  the  grass,  to 
plant  some  flowers,  to  secure  an  intelligent  gardener  to 
trim  the  walks  and  adorn  the  unoccupied  spaces  ?  An 
appeal  to  love's  memory  will  generally  meet  with  a 
response,  and  affection  will  necessarily  and  instinctively 
express  itself  in  beauty. 

The  village  churches  may  not  be  large  and  costly, 
but  they  may  be  made  attractive.  About  each  one 
should  be  a  protected  space,  every  inch  of  it  telling  a 
story  of  order,  neatness,  propriety,  grace.  Missionary 
societies  should  employ  the  best  architects  in  the 
country  to  furnish  plans  for  the  houses  of  worship. 
The  schoolhouse  and  its  play-ground,  in  country, 
village,  and  city,  should  enlist  the  service  of  local 


250  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


patriotism.  The  style  of  building  should  be  determined 
by  a  state  commission  of  consulting  architects,  and  not 
by  the  village  carpenter. 

All  towns  need  parks  for  public  meetings,  for  holiday 
festivals,  and  for  display  of  natural  beauty.  It  is 
happily  becoming  fashionable  for  rich  men  to  give 
tracts  of  land  for  public  uses.  But  it  is  not  necessary 
to  wait  for  a  shower  of  manna.  Towns  can  buy  or 
condemn  land  for  this  noble  use,  and  they  should  not 
wait  until  it  becomes  costly. 

In  cities  ' '  every  group  of  houses  should  as  a  matter 
of  course  have  its  play-grounds  for  children,  five  per 
cent  of  all  building  land  being  compulsorily  set  apart  by 
law  for  recreative  purposes"  (Jevons).  It  is  not 
enough  to  have  vast  areas  at  a  long  distance  from  the 
people.  In  the  center  of  every  block  must  be  a  play- 
ground, a  fountain,  a  bit  of  green,  room  for  color. 

Egoism,  "private  enterprise,"  is  an  aesthetic  failure 
Failure  of  as  ^  's  morally  vicious.  Mere  individualism  makes 
egoism.  ugly  towns.  Selfishness  compels  us  to  find  a  half- 

dozen  planes  of  motion  in  a  single  square,  since  the  free 
American  citizen  chooses  the  level  of  his  sidewalk  to 
suit  himself.  Here  is  a  shanty  next  door  to  a  house  of 
six  stories  ;  a  coal  yard  opposite  a  ribbon  shop  ;  a 
vacant  lot  full  of  thistles  next  a  neat  and  charming 
garden  ;  a  sharp  gable  contrasting  with  a  flat  cornice. 

Sociality,  neighborliness,  mutual  respect  will  some 
day  put  this  bold,  rude,  ungentlemanly  ruffianism  to 
shame.  The  inhabitants  of  a  street  will  form  an  associa- 
tion to  bring  the  entire  street  up  to  the  level  of  the 
finest  taste  anywhere  displayed.  The  poor  widow  will 
have  her  house  painted  since  she  cannot  afford  to  do  it 
herself ;  but  the  selfish  rich  man  who  defies  public 
opinion  will  be  rebuked  and  whipped  into  line. 


Socialized  Beauty  atid  Recreation.  251 

The  ugliness  of  our  towns  usually  arises  from  the  fact 
that  they  are  like  original  chaos,  without  form  or  plan. 
Each  man  builds  his  own  house  as  he  pleases  or  can. 
The  result  is  a  wilderness  of  chimneys  and  roofs  and 
irregular  lines.  The  mind  is  distracted  by  the  view. 

Some  suburban  towns  have  been  laid  out  according  to 
plans.  Intelligent  landowners  have  set  down  "building 
restrictions"  in  contracts  of  sale,  preventing  the  erection  Hopeful 

examples. 

of  unsightly  residences  or  shops.  But  the  poor  are  sel- 
dom thus  protected  against  themselves.  Nothing  short 
of  municipal  regulation  can  bring  order  and  beauty  into 
the  deformed  streets  where  so  many  are  compelled  to 
dwell  and  rear  their  children.  Every  city  should  have 
an  architect  who  should  draw  plans  and  assist  in  the 
arrangement  of  new  houses. 

Who  that  has  ever  enjoyed  the  Italian  cities  can  rest 
in  peace  when  he  returns  to  America?  The  vision  of 
Florence  and  Milan  haunts  him.  Patriotism  is  flattered 
by  our  rapid  growth  and  delights  in  the  prospect  of  still 
greater  cities.  But  refined  patriotism  desires  to  see  the 
next  generation  born  in  the  presence  of  buildings  and 
parks  which  will  insure  health  and  culture. 

Not  only  foreign  travelers  in  America,  but  visitors 
from  the  picturesque  regions  of  New  England  and  the  Monotony  of 
mountains  of  the  South  report  a  feeling  of  depression  scenery. 
after  a  long  journey  across  the  plains  of  the  West. 
They  readily  acknowledge  the  wonderful  fertility  of  the 
soil,  the  energy  of  the  inhabitants,  the  amazing  achieve- 
ments of  the  pioneers.  They  can  see  that  this  central 
plain  must  come  to  support  a  vast  population  whose 
numerical  preponderance  will  give  it  the  political  leader- 
ship of  the  republic.  But  men  accustomed  to  hills,  val- 
leys, cascades,  and  charming  parks  cannot  conceal  their 
discontent,  perhaps  their  disgust,  at  the  dull  level  monot- 


252  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

ony  of  the  country.  Many  of  the  prairie  towns,  with 
their  streets  in  spring  mere  lanes  of  sticky  mud,  with 
their  shabby  and  unpainted  board  houses,  their  ill-kept 
yards,  their  half-dozen  ugly  churches,  their  long  rows 
of  unwashed  country  wagons  ranged  along  the  principal 
thoroughfare,  horses  standing  in  filth,  irregular  wooden 
sidewalks,  and  general  air  of  neglect  and  disorder,  leave 
in  the  memory  of  the  visitor  forbidding  and  disagreeable 
impressions  of  the  aesthetic  and  moral  character  of  the 
people. 

But  each  country  has  its  own  peculiar  attractions  and 
Examples  of       possibilities.     Holland  is  a  very  flat  region,  and  much  of 

better  things.  .    .  . 

its  soil  was  originally  a  sand  in  which  no  plant  could 
grow.  But  The  Hague,  Leyden,  and  many  less  famous 
places  have  been  made  attractive  for  artists.  Having 
only  too  much  water,  they  have  lakelets  and  canals.  By 
liberal  use  of  fertilizers  they  have  redeemed  the  soil, 
planted  trees,  cultivated  flowers,  and  covered  the  naked, 
sterile  earth  with  living  forms  of  beauty.  Along  the 
sluggish  canals  are  trees  and  windmills  and  interesting 
quaint  houses.  The  western  towns  and  villages  may  be 
transformed  under  the  magic  touch  of  refined  taste. 
Flower  gardens,  hedges,  artistic  houses,  watercourses 
lined  with  all  varieties  of  shrubs,  lakes  which  mirror  the 
sky,  arched  bridges,  roads  become  avenues  of  noble 
trees,  windmills  as  useful  as  those  now  at  work  but  more 
attractive  to  the  eye,  these  are  among  the  possibilities  of 
the  future.  Mr.  Pullman  has  demonstrated  what  can  be 
done  on  level  ground,  and  discovered  to  the  western 
world  the  economic  value  of  beauty.  Here  and  there  a 
farmer  has  surrounded  himself  and  his  family  with  a  land- 
scape which  suggests  a  paradise.  There  are  villages, 
first  settled  by  New  England  people,  where  a  charming 
refinement  is  manifest  in  houses  and  public  buildings. 


Socialized  Beauty  and  Recreation.  253 

But  only  too  often  it  will  require  a  long  struggle  with 
stupid  apathy,  with  coarse  and  vulgar  indifference  before  APatfay- 
the  rude  pioneer  constructions  and  arrangements  yield 
to  the  demands  of  art  and  the  villages  and  rural  neigh- 
borhoods become  ministrant  to  a  rich  and  splendid 
human  life. 

Missionaries  of  beauty,  with  a  zeal  for  the  education 
of  aesthetic  faculties  dormant  in  the  people,  will  be 
required  for  the  crusade.  We  need  men  like  Jonathan 
Chapman,  nicknamed  "Johnny  Appleseed,"  who  was 
born  in  Boston  in  1775,  and  who  carried  apple  seeds 
into  Ohio,  planted  them  in  open  spaces,  sold  or  gave 
away  his  infant  orchards,  and  left  behind  him  living  and 
grateful  mementos  of  a  worthy  and  devoted  life. 

We  need  city  commissions  who  will  call  in  a  real  land- 
scape gardener  to  plan  their  parks  and  decorate  open 
spaces  and  cemeteries.  For  example,  the  visitor  of 
Detroit  can  see  at  Belle  Isle  what  a  genuine  artist  can 
make  of  a  perfectly  flat  and  swampy  piece  of  ground  ; 
how  he  can  transform  it  into  a  "vision,  a  delight,  and  a 
desire, ' '  by  comparatively  simple  means. 

There  is  a  close  connection  between  the  movement  to 

,  ,  Good  roads 

preserve  and    improve  our   natural    scenery  and  the  again, 
movement  to  promote  good  roads.     Senator  Chandler, 
in  an  address   before  the   National   League  for  Good 
Roads,  touches  this  point  : 

The  question  of  good  roads  in  New  Hampshire  has  con- 
nected itself  with  that  of  forestry,  because,  in  order  to  keep 
New  Hampshire  prominent  among  the  summer  resorts  of  the 
United  States,  it  is  necessary  for  us  not  only  to  have  good 
highways  and  good  roads,  giving  easy  access  to  our  natural 
scenery,  but  we  must  preserve  our  forests  and  our  water- 
courses. 

The  public   highway,   now   too   often  a  dreary  and 


254 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Village 

improvement 

societies. 


How  to  form 
them. 


saddening  stretch  of  monotony,  gives  opportunity  for 
rows  of  trees,  clambering  vines,  fountains,  resting 
places,  artistic  wayside  inns  for  bicycle  riders  and 
pedestrians. 

In  union  there  is  strength.  The  enthusiasts  will  be 
obliged  to  organize  their  friends,  to  excite  discussion, 
to  induce  lawyers,  merchants,  pastors,  teachers  to  com- 
mit themselves  in  essays  and  speeches  to  a  large  and 
worthy  policy  of  improvement.  Agitation  itself  will 
educate.  In  order  to  prepare  for  discussions  there 
must  be  reading  and  thinking.  On  Arbor  Day,  when 
trees  are  planted,  the  children  will  be  told  their  uses 
and  the  modes  of  caring  for  them.  At  the  annual 
festival  those  who  have  made  unusual  sacrifices  will  be 
praised  and  honored.  When  men  walk  under  the 
grateful  shade  on  hot  summer  days  they  will  think  of 
doing  for  posterity  what  others  have  done  for  them. 
Village  will  vie  with  village  for  the  honor  of  first  place 
in  attractiveness. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  form  a  village  improvement 
society.  A  dozen  earnest  people  can  engage  all  the 
professional  talkers  and  writers  to  set  the  air  vibrating 
with  eloquence.  The  poets  will  proffer  their  rhymes 
appropriate  to  the  season  and  the  subject.  A  president 
can  be  induced  to  accept  the  honors  and  dignities  of 
the  chief  office.  Various  committees  may  be  appointed 
to  collect  funds,  plan  enterprises,  persuade  the  slow, 
ridicule  the  patrons  of  ugliness,  and  to  do  particular 
pieces  of  betterment.  It  is  not  difficult  to  form  such  a 
society,  but  it  may  prove  a  very  weighty  burden  to 
carry  it  afterward  for  several  years. 

Perhaps  in  the  present  state  of  public  opinion  we 
must  generally  look  to  the  women's  clubs  for  leadership 
and  persistent  agitation.  The  county  fairs  are  institu- 


Socialized  Beauty  and  Recreation.  255 

tions  which  may  be  seized  upon  for  autumn  conven- 
tions, while  the  farmers'  societies  may  be  enlisted  with 
great  social  advantage. 

Miss  Margaret  J.  Evans,  president  of  the  Minnesota 
State  Federation  of  Women,  reports  that 

The  state  work  embraces  :  first,  fostering  town  and  country 
clubs  in  order  to  provide  women  from  the  country  rest  rooms  women's'clubs. 
when  in  town,  to  give  the  stimulus  of  social  intercourse,  and 
a  monthly  literary  program  ;  second,  fostering  public  and 
private  libraries ;  and,  third,  city  and  village  improvement 
associations.  Parks  and  streets  have  been  made  orderly  and 
beautiful  in  several  towns  in  Minnesota,  the  children  in  the 
schools  have  been  interested  and  instructed  by  placards  to 
lend  their  help,  country  school  boards  and  teachers  have  been 
entreated  to  make  country  districts  attractive,  and  much  use 
made  of  the  public  press  in  educating  public  sentiment. 

And  what  is  true  in  Minnesota  promises  to  be  con- 
tagious in  all  parts  of  the  union.  Fashions  soon  travel 
from  Paris  to  Oshkosh. 

Village  improvement  societies  and  similar  associa- 
tions in  cities  will  confront  the  problem  of  expense.  Of  Cost- 
course  the  niggardly  old  fossils  who  never  did  care  for 
anything  but  money,  and  whose  noblest  craving  is  land- 
hunger,  will  ridicule  private  effort  and  resist  the  levy  of 
taxes.  But  we  are  learning  the  value  of  franchises. 
We  have  come  near  the  end  of  giving  away  the  use  of 
streets  and  roads  to  make  rich  capitalists  still  more  rich. 
We  are  growing  weary  of  yielding  the  streets  to  be 
deformed  by  unsightly  poles  and  wires  without  compen- 
sation. We  are  coming  to  the  decision  that  a  part  of 
every  fare  we  pay  shall  go  to  some  public  use.  Now 
that  electric  roads  are  running  out  in  all  directions  it  is 
time  for  the  country  people  to  look  after  their  interest 
and  exact  compensation  for  the  use  of  roads.  Here  is  a 
source  of  revenue  for  improvements.  Many  a  company 


256  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

will  be  glad  to  keep  the  highway  in  order  for  their 
privileges,  if  the  county  town  authorities  are  honest  and 
awake  early  in  the  morning  of  the  day  when  the  fran- 
chise is  to  be  let. 

We  may  return  to  the  subject  of  luxury  in  connection 
_    ...  with   the  topic  of  recreations  and  art  for  the  people. 

Social  luxury.  _r 

Professor  Giddings  has  classed  under  the  head  of  ' '  cul- 
pable luxury"  expenditures  for  objects  which  are 
aesthetically  bad  ;  which  do  not  increase  the  sum  of 
beauty,  of  refinement,  and  of  general  cultivation  in  the 
community.  There  are  so  many  improvements  to  be 
made  ;  so  many  ways  of  investing  wealth  which  might 
add  to  the  rational  happiness  of  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  people,  that  selfish  and  reckless  outlays  on  momen- 
tary pleasures  seem  doubly  immoral. 

As  the  social  spirit  pervades  and  masters  all  minds, 
and  as  rich  men  come  to  see  that  the  path  to  honor  lies 
in  the  direction  of  public  service,  they  will  make  their 
grounds  and  their  picture  galleries  minister  to  the  eleva- 
tion of  all  their  neighbors.  Exclusive  and  insolent  walls 
will  not  obstruct  the  vision.  There  are  already  many 
who  have  set  the  example  of  generous  stewardship  and 
who  bring  their  treasures  of  art  before  the  eyes  of  the 
entire  community. 

Let  us  hear  the  verdict  of  one  of  the  principal  econo- 
mists of  this  century  : 

That  useful  function,  therefore,  which  some  profound  writers 
fancy  they  discover  in  the  abundant  expenditure  of  the  idle 
Luxurious  rich,  turns  out  to  be  a  sheer  illusion.     Political  economy  fur- 

o*seifishness.  nishes  no  such  palliation  of  unmitigated  selfishness.  Not  that 
I  would  breathe  a  word  against  the  sacredness  of  contracts. 
But  I  think  it  is  important,  on  moral  no  less  than  on  economic 
grounds,  to  insist  upon  this,  that  no  public  benefit  of  any  kind 
arises  from  the  existence  of  an  idle  rich  class.  The  wealth  ac- 
cumulated by  their  ancestors  or  others  on  their  behalf,  where  \\ 


Socialized  Beauty  and  Recreation.  257 

is  employed  as  capital,  no  doubt  helps  to  sustain  industry  ;  but 
what  they  consume  in  luxury  and  idleness  is  not  capital,  and 
helps  to  sustain  nothing  but  their  own  unprofitable  lives.  By 
all  means  they  must  have  their  rents  and  interest,  as  it  is  written 
in  the  bond  ;  but  let  them  take  their  proper  place  as  drones  in 
the  hive,  gorging  at  a  feast  to  which  they  have  contributed 
nothing.  (J.  E.  Cairnes,  "  Political  Economy.") 

Let  us  heed  the  voice  of  a  historian,  commenting  on 
the  service  of  the  father  of  political  economy  : 

Again,  no  rich  man  need  fear  that  he  will  learn  from  politi- 
cal economy  the  moral  sophism  that  luxury  may  be  laudably  Witness  of 
indulged  in  because  it  is  good  for  trade.  On  the  contrary,  he  e 
will  learn  to  distinguish  between  productive  and  unproductive 
consumption,  and  the  results  of  each  to  the  community.;  and 
he  will  have  it  brought  home  to  his  mind  more  effectually,  per- 
haps, than  by  any  rhetoric,  that  if  he  does  live  in  luxury  and  in- 
dolence, he  is  a  burden  to  the  earth.  The  words,  "  I  give  alms 
best  by  spending  largely,"  have  indeed  been  uttered,  and  they 
came  from  a  hard,  gross  heart.  But  it  was  the  heart  not  of  a 
political  economist,  but  of  a  most  Christian  king.  Those  words 
were  the  answer  of  Louis  XIV.  to  Madame  de  Maintenon  when 
she  asked  him  for  alms  to  relieve  the  misery  of  the  people. 
(Gold win  Smith,  "  Lectures  on  the  Study  of  History.") 

Mr.  Lecky,  whose  study  of  modern  life  has  been  pro- 
found and  extensive,  declares  : 

The  evils  that  spring  from  plutocracy  are  great,  and  increas- 
ing. One  of  the  most  evident  is  the  enormous  growth  of  luxu- 
rious living.  The  evil  does  not,  in  my  opinion,  lie  in  the  mul- 
tiplication of  pleasures.  Amusement,  no  doubt,  occupies  a 
very  disproportionate  place  in  our  lives,  and  many  men  grossly  A  historian- 
mismanage  their  pleasures,  and  the  amount  of  amusement  ex- 
pected by  all  classes  and  ages  has  within  the  last  generation 
greatly  increased.  But  those  who  have  realized  the  infinite 
pathos  of  human  life  and  the  variety  of  human  tastes,  charac- 
ters, and  temptations  will  hesitate  much  to  abridge  the  sum  of 
human  enjoyment,  and  will  look  with  indulgent  eye  on  many 
pleasures  which  are  far  from  cultivated,  elevating,  and  refined, 
provided  they  are  not  positively  vicious  and  do  not  bring  with 


258  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

them  grave  and  manifest  evils.  What  is  really  to  be  deplored 
Race  of  luxury,  is  the  inordinate  and  ever-increasing  expenditure  on  things 
which  add  nothing,  or  almost  nothing,  to  human  enjoyment.  It 
is  the  race  of  luxury,  the  mere  ostentation  of  wealth,  which 
values  all  things  by  their  cost. 

This  feeling  is  wholly  distinct  from  the  love  of  art.  To  minds 
infected  with  it  beauty  itself  is  nothing  if  it  is  common.  The 
rose  and  the  violet  make  way  for  the  stephanotis  and  the 
orchid.  Common  fruits  and  vegetables  are  produced  at  great 
expense  in  an  unnatural  season.  The  play  is  estimated  by  the 
splendor  of  its  scenery.  Innumerable  attendants,  gorgeous 
upholstery,  masses  of  dazzling  jewelry,  rare  dishes  from  distant 
countries,  ingenious  and  unexpected  refinements  of  costly  lux- 
ury, are  the  chief  marks  of  their  entertainments,  and  the  hand  of 
the  millionaire  is  always  seen.  Nor  is  the  evil  restricted  to  the 
small  circle  of  the  very  rich.  From  rank  to  rank  the  standard 
of  social  requirement  is  raised,  making  society  more  cumbrous, 
extravagant,  and  ostentatious,  driving  from  it  by  the  costliness 
of  its  accessories  many  who  are  eminently  fitted  to  adorn  it, 
and  ruining  many  others  by  the  competition  of  idle,  joyless, 
useless  display.  It  is  a  tendency  which  vulgarizes  and  materi- 
alizes vast  fields  of  English  life,  and  is  preparing  great  catas- 
trophes for  the  future.  ( "  Democracy  and  Liberty.") 

Luxurious  expenditures  "give  work"  to  and  dis- 
xhe  fallacy  of  tribute  money  among  wage-earners — cooks,  milliners, 
coachmen,  florists,  decorators,  cosmetic  venders.  That 
is  true.  A  certain  amount  of  this  expense  is  justifiable. 
But  $200,000  in  a  single  evening  !  Is  there  no  limit? 
The  voluptuary  not  only  apologizes  for  this  extrava- 
gance but  demands  praise  for  a  service  to  the  poor. 
' '  Have  I  not  given  employment  to  scores  of  people  with 
this  $200,000  spent  upon  my  ball?"  Yes.  And  in  a 
few  hours  nothing  remains  but  wrecks  and  waste.  Who 
has  not  heard  of  the  cruel  tyrant  who  commanded  a 
sculptor  to  make  him  a  statue  of  ice  ?  The  genius  which 
might  have  left  an  imperishable  work  in  marble  was 
whipped  by  fear  to  serve  a  moment's  caprice.  There  is 


Socialized  Beauty  and  Recreation.  259 

something  akin  to  this  in  the  cruel  wastefulness  of  the 
plutocrat  for  whom  the  Jenkinses  of  society  apologize 
and  whom  they  praise.  Charles  Kingsley  suggested,  in 
"Alton  Locke,"  that  the  same  money  spent  on  houses 
would  also  give  far  more  employment  to  wage-workers 
and  leave  behind  the  permanent  means  of  comfort. 
Wealth  spent  on  private  and  transitory  pleasures  if  dis- 
tributed on  public  parks,  museums,  galleries,  music  A  better  way. 
halls,  decoration  of  our  ugly  schoolrooms  and  mission 
chapels,  would  give  paying  occupation  to  many  more 
people  and  diffuse  satisfactions  among  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands instead  of  a  few  hundreds,  and  for  centuries  in- 
stead of  seconds.  To  the  student  of  history  and 
economics  the  insulting  excuses  and  praises  of  extrava- 
gance and  barbarian  ostentation  are  as  exasperating  as 
the  spectacle  itself  is  revolting  when  placed  in  contrast 
with  the  misery  which  is  near  it. 

The  chant  of  the  English  socialist  leader  and  artist 
paints  a  vision  worth  cherishing  in  every  democratic 
land  : 

And  what  wealth,  then,  shall  be  left  us,  when  none  shall  gather 

gold 

To  buy  his  friend  in  the  market,  and  pinch  and  pine  the  sold?  socialist.* 
Yea,  what  but  the  lovely  city,  and  the  little  house  on  the  hill, 
And  the  wastes  and  the  woodland  beauty,  and  the  happy  fields 

we  till, 

And  the  homes  of  ancient  story,  the  tombs  of  the  mighty  dead, 
And  the  wise  man  seeking  out  marvels,  and  the  poet's  teeming 

head, 

And  the  painter's  head  of  wonder,  and  the  marvelous  fiddle- 
bow, 
And  the  banded  choirs  of  music,  all  them  that  do  and  know. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

CHARITY   AND   CORRECTION. 

Thus  we  have  two  distinct  types  of  mind — the  egoistic, 
which  may  be  called  the  statical,  and  the  altruistic,  which  may 
be  called  the  dynamic.  The  egoistic,  or  statical,  type  of  mind 
looks  at  things  as  they  are,  and  has  no  thought  of  improving 
them.  .  .  .  Strong  sympathies  may,  indeed,  coexist  in 
such  minds,  but  they  are  impulsive  only,  and  extend  no 
further  than  the  concrete  case  which  may  happen  to  appeal  to 
them  at  the  moment.  The  dynamic  type  of  mind,  on  the 
other  hand,  sees  in  everything  a  potential  superiority  to  its 
present  condition.  It  demands  the  elevation  of  the  low,  not 
by  almsgiving,  but  by  education  and  enfranchisement,  until 
no  distinctions  shall  exist  except  those  of  actual  native 
capacity  to  do  and  to  be,  and  in  many  ways  it  agitates  moral 
reforms  for  the  future  and  the  many  when  no  direct  gain  to 
self  is  to  follow.—/:.  F.  Ward. 

THE  works  of  the  social  spirit  in  America  are  chiefly 
those  of  the  healthy,  vigorous,  progressive  members  of 
society.      When    Commander    Booth-Tucker,    of    the 
Salvation  Army,   speaks  of  our  country  he  no  longer 
writes  of  the   ' '  submerged   tenth  ' '   but  of  the   ' '  sub- 
jJ^smSi01"     mer£ed  twentieth."     We  have  not   yet  a  very  great 
sociology*!  permanent  pauper  and  criminal  class.    The  best  energies 

of  our  people  are  not  to  be  expended  on  the  defective 
and  delinquent.  We  are  finding  a  way  to  deal  merci- 
fully with  the  miserable,  and  yet  not  permit  revenues 
and  energies  to  be  absorbed  in  caring  for  those  of  whom 
least  can  be  made.  There  are,  indeed,  selfish  persons 
who  should  be  made  ashamed  of  their  hard  hearts  and 
unmerciful  apathy.  Some  part  of  every  strong  life 


Charity  and  Correction.  261 

should  be  given  to  the  weak.  But  those  persons  who 
represent  ' '  charity ' '  as  the  chief  business  of  mankind 
are  in  error.  Almsgiving  and  rescue  missions  ought  to 
occupy  a  relatively  small  place  in  the  sum  of  social 
labor.  It  is  ridiculous  to  identify  sociology  with  that 
corner  of  it  which  considers  human  depravity.  The 
arts  of  navigation  and  marine  commerce  deal  only 
incidentally  with  hulks  and  wrecks,  with  rocks  and 
roaring  straits.  The  science  of  health  might  be  abso- 
lutely complete  without  a  section  devoted  to  cancers 
and  fevers.  Social  pathology  is  but  one  aspect  of  the 
science  of  society  and  the  arts  of  social  control  and 
amelioration. 

It  is  true  that  contrary  opinion  is  current,  and  that 
some  people  feel  guilty  because  the  whole  city  is  not 
treated  as  a  hospital.  But  the  general  instinct  is  sound  Poverty  is 

A        '  TU      •    -1         J    *i.         1        U  1  notpaupenstn. 

and  wise.  The  jail  and  the  almshouse  have  nearly  as 
much  room  as  they  require  and  more  than  would  be 
necessary  if  the  laws  of  general  moral  and  physical 
health  were  better  understood  and  universally  obeyed. 

There  will  always  be  differences  in  ability  and  jn 
wealth.  We  shall  always  have  with  us  some  who  are 
poorer  than  others.  Poverty  is  a  relative  matter  and  it 
is  in  imagination  as  really  as  in  the  purse.  But  pauper- 
ism is  not  necessary,  any  more  than  yellow  fever.  Both 
are  diseases.  The  people  of  the  Middle  Ages  cultivated 
pauperism  as  a  gardener  grows  mushrooms.  Any  com-  cultivation  of 
munity  can  have  all  the  beggars  it  is  willing  to  pay  for  pauper 
to  adorn  its  church  porches  and  furnish  Lady  Bountiful 
with  a  background  for  her  "charity."  But  the  nation 
which  does  not  extinguish  its  pauperism  and  its  de- 
fective stock,  or  at  least  reduce  them  to  a  manageable 
quantity,  is  itself  to  blame. 

There  will  ever  be  occasion  for  neighborly  kindness  ; 


262 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Abolition  of 
pauperism. 


The  cannibal 
method  im- 
possible. 


for  family  care  of  helpless  infancy  and  decaying  age ; 
for  the  organization  of  mutual  assistance  and  insurance 
against  the  unforeseen  risks  of  life.  Altruism  will  have 
occasion  enough  for  display  and  development  without 
keeping  a  degraded  multitude  of  undeveloped  or  per- 
verted human  beings  on  hand  for  practice  of  the  super- 
natural virtues. 

The  best  relief  agencies  are  those  which  tend  to  make 
themselves  unnecessary,  not  those  which  report  the 
largest  disbursements  of  money,  coal,  and  old  clothes. 
The  best  prison  or  correctional  system  is  that  which 
shows  the  fewest  prisoners  in  proportion  to  the  popula- 
tion. 

The  ideal  of  charity  is  to  rid  the  world  of  the  pic- 
turesque vagrant,  the  professional  burglar,  the  begging 
child,  the  gypsy  mother,  the  drunken  sot.  No  method 
of  relief  was  ever  devised  which  did  not  tend  to  make 
human  beings  in  some  measure  parasitic,  weak,  help- 
less, and  base.  All  rational  charity  tends  to  sincere 
fraternity,  to  development  of  self-reliance  and  self- 
support. 

It  is  important  that  this  ideal  of  charity  should  be 
held  fast  through  evil  report  and  good  report,  just 
because  it  is  impossible  all  at  once  to  realize  it.  For 
the  present  we  have  a  great  multitude  of  defective, 
abnormal  members  of  society  on  our  hands.  We  can- 
not kill  them.  We  cannot,  as  Dean  Swift  suggested, 
fatten  and  eat  them.  We  are  not  cannibals.  The  past 
has  left  us  this  heritage  of  misery,  along  with  better 
things.  And  the  real  problem  of  charity  is  to  let  this 
entire  degenerate  stock  die  out  as  quietly  as  possible, 
and  meantime  replenish  the  earth  with  human  beings  of 
a  higher  type.  Every  measure  we  adopt  should  move 
steadily  and  consciously  in  this  direction,  because  mercy 


Charity  and  Correction.  263 

and  humanity  set  this  goal  before  us.  We  owe  it  to 
the  coming  generations  not  to  burden  them  with  a  load 
bequeathed  to  us  from  ignorance,  if  we  can  in  any  meas- 
ure diminish  it. 

In  the  paragraphs  of  this  chapter  a  system  of  charity 
and  penology  will  not  be  presented.  All  that  is  possi-  Completeness 

.  &/  .  .     .      ,  essential. 

ble  in  the  space  is  to  state  in  aphoristic  form  the  outlines 
of  a  comprehensive  method  of  dealing  with  degenerate 
members  of  society.  A  fish- net  must  not  have  a  hole 
in  it  anywhere  or  it  is  useless.  If  the  fence  is  down  at 
one  angle  the  cows  will  soon  go  from  lean  pastures  to 
feed  in  the  fat  corn.  A  system  of  charity  and  correc- 
tion must  be  a  cordon  absolutely  complete  at  every 
point ;  and  to  the  present  chaos  and  disorder  of  our 
methods  is  due  a  great  part  of  existing  evils.  The 
system  of  charity  and  correction  must  be  one  organic 
whole  in  which  every  part  has  place  and  every  action 
tends  to  a  common  goal. 

First  of  all,  the  entire  nation  must  be  led  to  adopt 
methods  of  life  which  will  not  deprave  human  life.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  repeat  here  all  that  has  been  said  in  Preventive 

i  i  •          1  •  /tut  «  •    i    measures. 

previous  chapters  on  this  subject.  All  that  the  social 
spirit  is  doing  to  promote  health,  intelligence,  beauty, 
friendliness,  morality,  integrity,  and  faith  in  the  Heav- 
enly Father  is  a  preventive  measure.  Much  of  the  best 
charity  is  never  conscious  of  working  for  the  pauper. 
Mutual  benefit  societies,  schools,  insurance,  savings 
banks,  athletic  clubs,  art  museums  contribute  to  that 
vigor  and  energy  which  leave  no  room  for  theft  and  vice 
and  beggary.  He  who  builds  a  wall  for  a  road  along  a 
dangerous  cliff  performs  a  higher  service  than  the  man 
who  merely  watches  and  waits  at  the  bottom  with  an 
ambulance.  There  are  bacterial  diseases  which  never 
hurt  a  man  so  long  as  he  has  good  digestion. 


264  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

Pauperism  and  crime  appear  in  their  worst  forms 
Causes.  where  the  alleys  are  foul  with  stench  ;  where  food  is 

scant  and  badly  cooked ;  where  human  beings  are 
crowded  together  like  swine  in  a  pen  ;  where  sunshine 
rarely  falls  ;  where  schools  do  not  give  training  for  life 
duties  and  efficiency  ;  where  family  customs  are  com- 
munistic ;  where  women  toil  in  factories  and  home  is 
deprived  of  their  presence  and  ministry  ;  where  wages 
are  low  and  labor  is  irregular ;  where  political  leaders  are 
corrupt  and  venal  ;  where  amusements  are  vile  and 
sensual ;  where  music  and  all  higher  elements  are  want- 
ing ;  and  where  the  rich  and  the  educated  set  an  ex- 
ample of  skepticism,  materialism,  and  egoism. 

So  long  as  we  tolerate  such  conditions  we  shall  have 
sickly,  deformed,  stunted,  depraved  people.  We  begin 
too  late  when  we  introduce  reforms  in  out-door  relief,  in 
prisons  and  almshouses.  The  environment  of  a  man  is 
his  school.  The  slum  shapes  and  bends  people  to  its 
character. 

The  only  way  to  reach  men  is  by  changing  their 
Environment,  environment.  We  are  not  pure  ghosts.  No  spirit 
ever  changed  another  spirit  save  by  modifying  the 
environment.  By  environment  is  meant  here  the 
material  objects,  the  language,  the  pictures,  the  enter- 
tainments, the  customs,  the  treatment  of  man  by  man, 
the  habitual  appeals  of  speech  and  books  and  papers. 

Christ  himself  became  incarnate  so  as  to  teach  souls 
through  the  body. 

And  so  the  Word  had  breath  and  wrought 
With  human  hands  the  creed  of  creeds, 
In  loveliness  of  perfect  deeds, 
More  strong  than  all  poetic  thought. 

God  reveals  himself  in  the  forces  and  objects  of 
nature  and  human  life.  No  short  path  to  abolition  of 


Charity  and  Correction.  265 

pauperism  is  discoverable  ;  it  must  be  attacked  from  all 
sides.  Mr.  Arnold  White  has  attempted  a  summary 
program  : 

Emigrate  four  per  cent  of  the  fit  among  them,  stop  the 
immigration  of  the  incurable  paupers,  take  the  children  out  of 
the  guilt  gardens,  give  relief  work  to  the  adults,  restrict  chari- 
ties to  the  sick,  aged,  and  young,  encourage  the  growth  of 
trades  unions,  discourage  improvident  marriage. 

Here  are  hints  of  a  system  which  needs  to  be  worked 
out  in  detail  and  adapted  to  American  conditions. 

The  story  of  Helen  Keller,  blind  and  deaf,  reads 
like  a  tale  of  the  Arabian  Nights.  Out  from  a  night  Helen  Keller, 
that  knew  no  stars  or  moon  she  was  led  into  intellectual 
day  ;  out  from  the  gloom  of  speechless  isolation  she 
was,  by  the  patient  wisdom  of  skilful  instructors,  trans- 
formed into  an  inspirer  and  companion  of  mankind. 
Beautifully  has  she  spoken  for  such  wise  charity  armed 
with  the  weapons  of  science  : 

Remember,  no  effort  that  we  make  to  attain  something 
beautiful  is  ever  lost.  Sometime,  somewhere,  somehow,  we 
shall  find  that  which  we  seek.  We  shall  speak,  yes,  and  sing, 
too,  as  God  intended  we  should  speak  and  sing. 

We  may  distinguish  among  the  children  whose  con-  Dependent 
ditions   and    perils    require    social   care  the  following  chi'dren- 
classes  :  the  slow,  the  truant,   the  toilers,  the  juvenile 
offenders,  and  the  feeble-minded. 

In  every  large  school  there  are  a  few  dull  children 
who  cannot  keep  up  in  the  race  and  at  last  cease  to  Dul,  chil(lren 
compete.  They  require  special  care  and  sometimes 
separate  rooms.  The  wiser  teachers  permit  them  to 
drop  part  of  their  studies  rather  than  crush  their  hopes 
and  bewilder  their  minds.  Unless  these  little  ones  are 
very  tenderly  and  tactfully  helped  they  are  in  danger  of 
becoming  helpless  or  rebellious,  paupers  or  criminals. 


266  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

Truant  children  are  cases  of  ' '  reversion ' ' ;  that  is, 
they  have  a  strain  of  an  ancestral  wandering  instinct. 
All  children  are  naturally  travelers.  And  when  the 
domestic  environment  is  cramped,  the  air  depressing, 
the  light  dim,  the  mother  nervous  and  irritable  with 
toil  and  hunger,  there  the  centrifugal  forces  are  strong. 
Our  juvenile  prisons  are  filled  with  these  truant  chil- 
dren. The  parents  cannot  govern  them.  Principals  of 
schools  sweep  them  out  of  their  sight  and  send  up  the 
report  ' '  incorrigible. ' '  The  label  sticks  to  the  fore- 
head and  the  boy  tries  to  deserve  his  bad  name  by 
appropriate  conduct.  For  the  first  time  in  his  career 
the  boy  finds  in  the  bridewell  or  reformatory  compul- 
sory education  and  a  chance  to  train  his  hands  to 
useful  industry.  We  sow  the  wind  and  foolishly  hope 
to  reap  a  soft  zephyr.  We  plant  a  briar  and  curse  the 
ground  for  not  growing  us  a  fig.  Crime  is  not  a  neces- 
sity ;  it  is  only  a  natural  product  of  neglect. 

None  of  us  ever  learned  to  speak  or  sing  or  pray 
without  help  of  teachers.  Truants  do  not  acquire  heroic 
virtues  by  intuition. 

The  social  spirit  is  at  work  nearer  the  foundations. 
Cities  are  providing  "ungraded  schools"  and  "parental 
schools ' '  to  correct  these  incorrigibles  and  make  good 

Parental  .  ° 

schools.  men    of    them.     Workmgmen    are    away   from    home 

before  dawn  and  after  dark.  Frequently  their  wives 
must  help  to  earn  the  living.  It  is  impossible  for  them 
to  administer  discipline.  The  tenement  house  is  a 
Babel.  The  street  is  a  theater  of  vicious  influences, 
and  at  night  a  city  is  an  unspeakable  tempter.  To 
ascend  the  stairs  to  his  home  the  boy  must  often  go 
through  a  saloon.  See  the  Hull  House  Maps  and 
cease  to  wonder  that  there  are  so  many  truants.  It  is 
amazing  that  there  are  so  few.  It  is  a  hopeful  sign 


Charily  and  Correction.  267 

that  in  these  dull,  noisome  quarters  blossom  so  many 
lovely  characters,  affectionate  mothets,  sober  and  indus- 
trious fathers,  ambitious  students.  But  the  weaker 
ones  need  help. 

With  "labor-saving"  machinery  so  powerful  that  it 
gluts   the   markets   with    goods,    with   armies   of   men  Working 

°  children. 

seeking  employment  in  vain,  there  is  no  excuse  for 
putting  school  children  into  factories  before  their  bones 
and  muscles  are  developed,  and  before  their  brains  have 
been  disciplined  for  continuous  and  effective  thinking. 
Machinery  is  doing  nearly  all  the  rough  work  now,  and 
muscles  without  intelligence  have  low  price.  Mr. 
Depew  says  that  the  world  is  full  of  misfits,  and  that 
misfits  are  always  cheap.  A  great  and  rich  people 
cannot  afford  to  rob  a  whole  generation  of  the  mental 
equipment  which  is  essential  to  social  adjustments  in 
modern  life.  Compulsory  education  is  social  defense 
against  crime  and  vagrancy.  We  must  follow  the 
better  examples  and  remove  the  little  girls  from  the  Right  ofthe 

~.  .  .    ,  ,   ,          ,  ,  state  to  compel 

streets.     There  is  no  social  need  for  their  service  there,   school  attend- 

j    i  i         i          •  «  •  ance. 

and  the  innocent  daughter  in  such  an  environment  soon 
becomes  a  plague  and  a  sorceress.  The  retail  shops 
are  leading  others  to  the  dark  and  dolorous  path  of  sin 
and  shame.  When  mothers  begin  to  investigate  the 
histories  of  these  toiling  children,  ever  grazing  the 
occupations  of  vagabonds,  their  hearts  will  cry  out 
against  the  evil.  Follow  the  telegraph  messenger  boy 
to  his  home.  Talk  with  the  match-seller,  the  bouquet- 
seller,  the  news-vending  girl  on  the  corner.  See  how 
ignorant  these  are  of  much  that  we  think  necessary  for 
our  children.  Discover  how  precocious  they  are  in 
knowledge  of  evil.  Yonder  are  the  "free"  schools, 
but  barred  to  these.  Is  it  any  wonder  that  we  furnish 
recruits  for  the  nameless  haunts  of  vice  ?  Here  also  is  a 


268 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


task  for  the  social  spirit — to  take  the  toiling  children 
from  factory,  sweat-shop,  street,  and  saloon  and  bring 
them  into  schools,  and  adapt  the  schools  to  their  needs. 

Motherless  children  must  have  a  real  home.  Tem- 
porarily they  may  be  detained  in  an  institution.  But 
no  woman  can  care  properly  for  a  great  brood.  There 
is  need  of  a  paternal  as  well  as  a  maternal  discipline. 
Dependent  children  should  be  carefully  adopted  in 
kind  families.  If  it  is  impossible  to  find  people  to 
adopt  them  they  should  be  apprenticed  or  boarded — 
never  heaped  up  in  orphanages  as  for  ' '  cold  storage. ' ' 

But  when  thus  placed  in  homes  there  must  be  con- 
stant supervision.  Children  are  not  always  easily  fitted 
to  a  home.  There  are  disappointments  and  must  be 
changes.  Oversight  by  correspondence  is  not  adequate. 
The  supervisor  must  actually  visit  the  homes  where 
children  have  been  placed,  and  the  visits  must  be  with- 
out notice. 

As  the  state  must  bear  the  burden  of  failures  it 
should  have  a  system,  like  that  in  Michigan,  for  caring 
for  all  dependent  children.  This  does  not  prevent 
churches  and  charitable  societies  from  caring  for  orphans 
and  other  homeless  children,  but  it  brings  them  all  to 
safe  methods.  No  state,  city,  town,  or  county  should 
subsidize  private  or  church  institutions.  No  money 
raised  by  taxation  should  be  expended  or  used  by  any 
persons  who  are  not  appointed  and  directed  by  the 
governments.  A  society  which  professes  to  be  charita- 
ble should  raise  its  own  funds  by  voluntary  contribu- 
tions. It  is  hypocrisy  to  call  that  a  gift  to  the  com- 
munity which  is  partly  provided  by  taxes.  Sectarian 
and  other  politically  irresponsible  institutions  should 
have  no  grants  from  public  treasuries.  The  subsidy 
system  is  wrong  in  principle,  unfair  to  a  part  of  the 


Charity  and  Correction.  269 

people,  deceptive  in  form,  tends  to  crowd  institutions, 
increases  the  number  of  dependents,  causes  financial 
scandal,  turns  professed  philanthropists  into  tricky  lob- 
byists. 

The  feeble-minded  persons  number,  perhaps,  90,000 
in  the  United  States.  It  is  difficult  to  discover  all  of  Defectives, 
them  by  any  process  of  census-taking.  They  are  beings 
of  arrested  or  unnatural  development,  dwarfs  or  mon- 
sters by  heredity.  Only  a  few  states  have  provided  for 
their  custody.  The  girls  grow  up  in  many  parts  of  the 
land  without  protectors  and  become  unmarried  mothers 
of  weak,  helpless,  deformed  creatures  like  themselves. 
In  Mr.  Dugdale's  "Jukes"  and  in  Mr.  McCulloch's 
' '  Tribe  of  Ishmael ' '  the  reader  can  see  what  costly  and 
sorrowful  consequences  follow  this  shameful  neglect. 
Probably  more  than  eighty  per  cent  of  the  feeble- 
minded had  such  parents.  In  one  generation  it  would 
be  possible  to  cut  off  many  thousands  of  these  streams 
of  vicious  heredity.  How?  By  the  simple  and  com- 
paratively inexpensive  process  of  confining  them  in 
special  institutions  where  they  could  work  for  them- 
selves on  farms  and  gardens  and  die  without  offspring. 
This  is  the  only  merciful  and  religious  way  to  deal  with 
this  class,  one  of  the  most  prolific  sources  of  vice  and 
crime.  Fortunately,  public  opinion  during  the  past 
few  years  has  been  directed  to  this  evil  and  a  great 
advance  has  already  been  made  in  some  of  the  states. 

Education  has  been  idolized  among  us.     Almost  un- 
limited virtue  has  been  ascribed  to  it.     But  education  Ljmitsof 

...          ,      n-  <-•««••  education. 

has  Us  limits  of  efficacy.  Social  selection  is  necessary. 
Education  accomplishes  very  little  with  imbeciles  and 
instinctive  criminals  ;  it  cannot  make  them  fit  to  be 
parents ;  it  cannot  take  vice  out  of  the  blood.  Religion 
itself  does  not  consist  altogether  in  sermons.  A  high 


270 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Th«  insane. 


Religious 
consolation. 


stone  wall,  with  sharp  spikes  on  top,  is  as  necessary  a 
means  of  grace  to  defectives  as  hymns  are  for  normal 
people.  A  microcephalous  idiot  is  not  converted  into  a 
good  mother  by  exhortations  or  by  Froebel's  gifts. 
Unscientific  philanthropy  in  this  field  is  cruel  and  anti- 
social. 

In  almost  every  state  one  of  the  first  public  institu- 
tions to  be  established  by  taxation  is  an  asylum  for  the 
insane.  These  refuges  of  the  mentally  unsound  are 
demanded  by  considerations  of  safety  as  well  as  of 
humanity.  Our  century  has  witnessed  remarkable  ad- 
vance in  the  skill  and  gentleness  of  their  treatment. 
The  ancient  superstitions  which  ascribed  insanity  to  evil 
spirits  have  fled  before  the  light  of  science  which  shows 
that  some  specific  disease  of  nerves  and  brain  is  the  sole 
and  direct  cause  of  every  unusual  disturbance  of  mental 
activity.  The  asylum  is  simply  a  hospital  for  treating 
nervous  diseases.  There  is  no  more  mystery  about  it 
than  there  is  about  a  hospital  for  treating  the  eye  and 
the  ear. 

As  mental  states  react  upon  the  body,  all  quieting 
and  cheering  influences  may  be  employed,  under  the 
physician's  control,  as  remedial  agencies.  But  fanati- 
cism and  excitement  must  be  positively  excluded  from 
the  hospital,  and  all  aesthetic,  educational,  and  religious 
exercises  must  be  regulated  by  expert  physicians.  This 
principle  is  not  always  understood  by  zealous  religious 
teachers  and  evangelists  who  have  never  studied  nervous 
disease,  and  such  misrepresentations  of  religion  have 
provoked  the  deserved  suspicion  and  hostility  of  emi- 
nent alienists  who  have  seen  the  careful  work  of  months 
utterly  ruined  in  an  hour  of  indiscreet  excitement. 

The  public  should  understand  that  the  prospect  of 
permanent  cure  is  much  greater  in  earlier  stages  of  dis- 


Charity  and  Correction.  271 

ease  than  after  it  has  made  deep  inroads.  Therefore 
public  sentiment  should  favor  placing  those  who  are 
mentally  unbalanced  under  the  care  and  direction  of 
special  experts  as  soon  as  the  unpleasant  symptoms  are 
apparent.  All  of  us  should  cultivate  a  mental  habit  of 
regarding  the  insane  as  ill,  and  should  avoid  whispering 
in  their  presence  and  making  them  feel  that  they  are 
peculiar. 

Luther  edited  a  book  of  beggars.  Vagrancy  is  not  a 
modern  pest.  Centuries  ago  sturdy  and  valiant  beggars  Tramps, 
moved  in  troops  over  Europe,  levied  on  the  stores  of 
peasants,  and  demanded  help  at  the  gates  of  convents. 
There  are  fluctuations  in  the  numbers  of  these  wander- 
ers at  various  periods.  Times  of  business  depression 
naturally  increase  their  number.  After  a  "crisis"  for 
several  months  or  years  there  are  multitudes  of  the  un- 
employed, and  we  are  compelled  to  provide  emergency 
relief.  The  following  maxims,  curtly  stated,  must  be 
the  present  contribution  to  the  discussion  of  method  : 

We  must  distinguish  the  unemployed  from  the  pro- 
fessional vagrant.  In  times  of  emergency  neighbor  Emergency 
should  help  neighbor,  friend  help  friend.  Those  who  relief- 
are  prosperous  should  extend  their  calling  list  and  make 
new  acquaintances  among  the  poor.  Manufacturers 
often  make  agreements  with  their  employees  to  keep 
the  factories  running  at  reduced  cost  because  wares  can 
be  marketed  only  at  lower  rates.  It  is  a  good  time  to 
make  improvements  which  will  some  day  be  necessary. 
Cities,  without  opening  public  works,  can  undertake 
enterprises  which  can  be  done  earlier  and  more  cheaply 
when  labor  is  abundant.  It  seems  probable  that  a  sys- 
tem of  insurance  against  loss  by  non-employment  will  in 
the  future  help  to  tide  over  evil  days.  If  forty  millions 
of  people  are  thinking  of  little  ways  of  helping  in  months 


272 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Vagabonds. 


Labor 

hdreaus. 


Labor  tests. 


of  emergency  then  as  many  millions  of  acts  of  aid  will  be 
done.  In  fact,  it  is  in  these  unrecorded  ways  that  many 
people  have  been  kept  alive  during  the  past  few  years. 
Charity  organizations  assist  this  process  by  bringing 
many  kind  people  into  personal  relations  with  those  who 
are  in  want. 

Discrimination  between  honest  workingmen  and 
tramps  is  as  necessary  as  it  is  sometimes  difficult,  be- 
cause the  tramp  professes  to  be  seeking  work  as  the 
hypocrite  professes  to  be  seeking  religion.  In  the  chain 
of  agencies  developed  in  older  countries  we  find  the  fol- 
lowing, each  one  performing  a  part  of  the  social  duty. 

The  first  step  is  to  provide  information  by  means 
of  labor  bureaus.  Trades  unions  have  organized  one  of 
the  most  exact  and  efficient  agencies  of  this  species. 
Mutual  benefit  societies  are  sometimes  able  to  inform 
members  of  their  fraternities  where  remunerative  em- 
ployment may  be  found.  Charity  organization  societies 
always  assist  dependents  as  far  as  possible  in  cities,  but 
skilled  workmen  avoid  them  and  employers  find  that  the 
grade  of  ability  is  frequently  low.  No  very  efficient  sys- 
tem has  yet  been  devised,  and  the  best  system  will  not 
find  places  for  skilled  workmen  when  the  manufactories 
are  closed  all  over  the  country. 

Investigations  and  catechisms  are  of  little  value  in  dis- 
criminating between  honest  and  dishonest  wanderers.  A 
very  hungry  man  is  greatly  tempted  to  profess  almost 
any  creed  which  promises  a  mess  of  pottage.  Free  soup 
attracts  to  missions  the  same  class  of  men  who  are 
drawn  to  saloons  by  free  lunches.  The  labor  test  is 
necessary  to  separate,  in  a  general  way,  the  sheep  from 
the  goats.  It  does  not  tell  who  is  "worthy"  and  who 
is  "unworthy."  These  ancient  distinctions  have  no 
practical  value.  When  a  man  may  be  in  danger  of 


Charity  and  Correction.  273 

freezing  or  starving  inquiry  into  his  pedigree  and  re- 
ligious biography  is  mockery.  Investigation  may  do 
him  harm.  What  if  it  should  reveal  that  he  is  an  ex- 
convict  !  The  only  question  to  ask  of  an  able-bodied 
man  is,  Will  you  work  ?  And  the  only  evidence  he  can 
give,  without  a  certificate  from  his  pastor,  is — that  he 
actually  does  some  work. 

But  such  temporary  work  tests  as  sawing  wood  and 
wheeling  sand  are  mere  makeshifts.  Tramps  are  often 
willing  to  earn  a  meal  or  two  but  are  not  willing  to  per- 
severe in  well-doing.  They  have  no  habits  of  industry, 
and  a  single  work  test  cannot  reveal  this  defect. 

In  order  to  take  hold  of  a  large  body  of  dependent 

.      .  :    .         .  .  Voluntary 

and  homeless  men  associations  or  municipalities  must  fe""  colonies 

.....  and  shops. 

have  ready  regular  places  of  productive  industry.  In 
the  cold  climates  of  the  North  there  is  a  great  difficulty 
in  providing  work  hi  winter.  The  county  poorhouses 
are  crowded  with  men  who  in  summer  live  by  begging, 
odd  earnings,  and  theft.  It  is  these  men  who  frighten 
farmers  into  feeding  them  by  threats  of  burning  barns 
and  ricks.  It  is  these  men  who  are  voted  in  blocks  of 
fifty  by  low  politicians.  It  is  these  men,  perhaps 
50,000  or  more  in  our  country,  who  are  venal  voters, 
who  are  physically  diseased,  and  who  increase  enor- 
mously the  expenses  of  police  and  courts  and  prisons. 

It  is  therefore  imperative  that  work  should  be  offered 
to  this  entire  crowd  in  winter.  A  stone  pile  will  empty 
a  poorhouse  or  a  wayfarers'  lodge  like  magic.  Break- 
ing stone  for  roads  within  inclosures  is  ennobling  exer- 
cise. Free  soup-houses  and  free  shelters  simply  attract 
men  to  the  city  and  confirm  young  vagabonds  in  their 
habits. 

The  work  test  in  poorhouses  and  city  shelters  and  the  Reveiatiom 
voluntary  farm   colony  will  reveal  the  fact  that  some  work'tcst. 


274  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

of  the  unemployed  are  strong  and  willing  but  have 
never  learned  any  useful  art.  Perhaps  they  were  news- 
boys, bootblacks,  or  telegraph  messengers  during  the 
age  when  a  trade  might  have  been  learned.  When  they 
became  too  big  for  such  occupations  they  were  turned 
adrift  by  parents  to  shift  for  themselves.  Perhaps  they 
left  home  to  escape  restraint  and  after  a  brief  job  in  a 
factory  were  discharged  and  soon  brought  to  beggary  or 
theft.  Once  arrested  they  lost  care  for  respectable  peo- 
ple and  abandoned  themselves  to  the  company  of  men 
and  women  who  would  not  put  them  to  shame.  If  they 
are  ever  to  get  back  into  society  they  must  be  taught 
some  trade  according  to  their  nature  and  history.  It 
may  be  difficult  to  accomplish  this,  but  it  is  the  only- 
path  to  their  salvation. 

The  educational  value  of  the  suburban  garden  scheme 
seems  to  be  its  chief  recommendation.      People  learn 

The     potato 

patch.'1  how  to  get  their  food  out  of  the  soil,  how  to  follow 

an  art  and  reap  the  fruit  of  their  own  industry.  Many 
families  have  thus  been  prepared  for  the  transition  to 
country  life  or  to  horticulture.  Experiments  made  in 
Europe  and  in  this  country  prove  that  it  is  a  method 
worth  trying  on  a  larger  scale.  Small  towns  can  assist 
some  of  their  poor  by  lending  them  patches  of  ground 
for  cultivation  in  the  summer.  In  many  cases  some 
members  of  the  family  can  thus  raise  so  many  vegetables 
that  it  is  unnecessary  to  appeal  to  charity  for  relief  in 
the  winter. 

After  the  labor  test  has  selected  out  those  who  are 

Themcomp«-  ..,.,. 

tent  residuum,  capable  and  willing  there  will  remain  in  the  sinks  or 
cities  another  mixed  multitude  who  require  further  dis- 
crimination and  varied  treatment.  Some  of  these  will 
be  found  quite  able  and  ready  to  work  under  the  direc- 
tion of  managers,  but  incompetent  to  find  a  manager. 


Charity  and  Correction.  275 

They  require  some  one  set  over  them  to  direct  and 
arrange  their  work  and  show  them  just  what  to  do. 
These  futile,  feeble  people  at  present  are  now  about  half 
supported  by  charity.  They  throng  the  labor  market 
and  help  to  lower  the  wages  of  competent  men,  and 
reduce  these  to  pauperism  along  with  themselves.  The 
best  method  of  dealing  with  these  is  the  farm  colony, 
under  county  or  city  management,  or  under  the  care  of 
benevolent  and  religious  associations. 

Still  another  institution  will  be  found  necessary  if  we 
are  to  deal  effectually  with  vagrants.  Some  of  them  are  The  rebellious 
criminals  or  at  least  confirmed  beggars.  It  is  useless  to 
invite  these  men  to  a  voluntary  colony,  for  they  will  not 
come.  Yet  they  are  not  fit  to  live  in  society  and  they 
are  dangerous  in  the  community.  For  these  a  compul- 
sory residence  of  years  on  an  inclosed  tract  of  land 
seems  the  only  method  which  promises  restoration  of  the 
more  hopeful  cases,  and  guarantees  the  public  defense. 

This  last  measure  can  be  closely  connected  with  a 
system  of  progressive  sentences  in  the  criminal  courts. 
When  it  is  thought  safe  to  release  regular  offenders  they 
should  first  be  permitted  to  go  abroad  on  parole  and 
under  guardianship.  The  present  custom  of  giving 
short  sentences  is  worse  than  useless  ;  it  discourages  the 
reformable  and  confirms  the  incorrigible. 

We  have  multitudes  of  independent,  separated  associ- 
ations for  distributing  relief,  and  many  kind-hearted 
individuals  ready  to  bestow  alms.  But  we  have  no 
organized  system  of  charities.  Our  several  pieces  of 
benevolence  are  like  short  railroads  cut  off  from  trunk 
lines,  or  like  a  telephone  which  has  no  connection  with 
the  network  of  wires.  Not  only  in  cities  but  in  county 
towns  is  there  a  necessity  for  voluntary  associations 
of  all  benevolent  persons,  societies,  and  poor  relief 


276 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Objects  and 
methods. 


Friendly 
visitors. 


Public  insti- 
tutions. 


officials  for  the  purpose  of  systematizing  philanthropic 
enterprises. 

A  charity  organization  society  is  charged  with  the 
duty  of  collecting  and  recording  full  information  in 
regard  to  all  dependent  persons  within  its  district,  be  it 
town,  county,  or  city.  Its  secretary  should  be  able  on 
the  instant  to  tell  exactly  what  person  or  institution  is 
ready  to  give  help  to  a  wanderer,  an  orphan,  an  aged 
and  helpless  dependent,  a  sick  stranger,  a  friendless 
widow,  a  demented  or  insane  charge. 

Such  a  society  would  have  a  conference  or  several 
conferences  of  ' '  friendly  visitors, ' '  of  men  and  women 
who  are  willing  to  make  acquaintances  with  needy  per- 
sons or  families  and  do  the  part  of  a  kind  neighbor. 
These  conferences  hear  the  reports  of  these  visitors  on 
each  case,  once  a  fortnight  or  once  a  month,  and  tell 
them  what  should  be  done  until  the  next  meeting.  If  a 
hired  agent  or  an  individual  visitor  is  permitted  to  con- 
duct the  case,  save  in  an  hour  of  pressing  danger,  the 
conference  will  dissolve,  will  talk  itself  to  death.  If  the 
conference  is  made  to  feel  that  it  must  reach  decisions 
and  determine  treatment  it  will  feel  a  sense  of  responsi- 
bility and  the  members  will  take  pains  to  attend  the 
meetings.  These  conferences  can  be  organized  in 
churches  or  in  neighborhoods  or  in  women's  clubs, 
and  each  one  should  be  related  to  the  central  office. 

A  charity  organization  society  will  have  committees  to 
visit  all  public  institutions,  as  jails,  lock-ups,  poor- 
houses,  orphanages,  and  asylums  ;  to  study  the  condi- 
tions of  the  houses  and  the  methods  of  treatment ;  to 
see  that  no  children  are  kept  under  the  same  roof  with 
adult  paupers  or  criminals.  A  committee  should  act 
with  the  overseer  of  the  poor,  watch  the  effect  of  pub- 
lic relief  on  dependent  persons,  and  devise  means  of 


Charity  and  Correction.  277 

helping  them  to  support  themselves.  A  committee  of 
ladies  or  a  circle  of  King's  Daughters  could  visit  the 
poorhouse,  furnish  concerts  and  entertainments,  con- 
duct musical  religious  services,  plan  suitable  occupa- 
tion for  sick  and  aged  women,  and  help  them  to  live 
a  useful  and  contented  life.  A  committee  of  men  should 
see  to  it  that  tramps  are  not  sent  on  from  place  to  place 
and  confirmed  in  migratory  habits,  but  held  to  task 
work  and  sent  away  to  the  place  where  there  is  some 
reasonable  prospect  of  their  finding  employment. 

A  charity  organization  society  in  a  small  town  can 
study  the  social  causes  of  personal  degeneration  :  the 
saloon,  the  coarse  amusements,  the  idle  groups  for 
gossip,  the  rude  practical  jokes,  the  low  and  depraving 
entertainments  furnished  by  strolling  players.  The 
character  of  entertainments  can  be  raised  ;  musical  study  of  causes, 
classes  and  concerts  substituted  for  the  demoralizing 
shows  ;  debates  and  discussions  planned  to  awaken  the 
intellect  and  prepare  for  citizenship  ;  common  enter- 
prises of  sanitation  and  village  improvement  set  on  foot 
to  kindle  local  pride  and  public  spirit  as  antidote  for 
animalism  and  selfish  indulgence.  The  Raiffeisen  credit 
banks  could  be  organized  for  renters  and  small  shop- 
keepers. Provident  loan  societies  might  provide  small 
loans  to  honest  men  who  would  otherwise  enroll  them- 
selves and  their  children  as  public  paupers  and  take  the 
first  step  downward. 

Thus  in  all  ways  the  conferences  of  friendly  visitors 
would  go  from  external  symptoms  to  the  deep,  underly-  uai°to  loria 'd 
ing  causes  of  pauperism  and  crime,  from  the  study  of 
particular  instances  of  misery  to  the  large  social  forces 
which  press  upon  the  helpless  individual  and  drive  him 
to  despair. 

Every  benevolent  person  is  under  moral  obligations 


278 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Duty  of 
cooperation. 


Help  for 
the  soul. 


to  work  in  harmony  with  others  engaged  in  similar 
service.  The  egoistic  methods  are  dissolvents  of 
society.  Courtesy,  cooperation,  the  use  of  a  common 
registration  of  wants  and  resources  are  among  the  most 
solemn  duties  of  churches  and  individual  benefactors. 
The  progress  of  the  movement  has  been  impeded  by 
ignorance  and  misunderstanding,  by  sectarian  animosity 
and  suspicion,  by  the  superstitions  of  tradition,  by  the 
jealousy  of  relief  societies  working  by  antiquated  meth- 
ods, and  by  the  mistakes  of  inexperienced  representa- 
tives. But  charity  organization  principles  have  been 
tested  in  the  history  of  this  century,  and  with  growing 
intelligence  and  fellowship  will  in  due  time  command  the 
respect  and  secure  the  devotion  of  all  philanthropists. 
Mr.  George  Duruy  wrote  : 

When  Dr.  Roux  began  his  fight  against  diphtheria,  did  he 
know  the  remedy  for  it?  No.  He  said:  "Here  is  a  mis- 
fortune; let  us  seek  the  means  of  combating  it."  Let  us  do 
the  same  with  poverty,  even  while  knowing  that  this  old  social 
evil,  brother  of  disease  and  death,  is,  like  them,  eternal.  It  is 
no  longer  possible  to  accept  as  an  axiom  that  the  fatality  of 
hard  economic  laws  cannot  be  softened,  when  other  fatalities, 
such  as  those  of  disease  and  suffering,  are  receding  before  the 
advance  of  science.  .  .  .  Minds  suffer  more  than  bodies 
nowadays.  There  are  no  asylums,  workhouses,  hospitals  to 
appease  the  torments  of  envy  that  rack  them  nor  the  thirst  for 
justice  that  burns  them. 

The  charity  organization  society  stands  for  instant 
and  tender  relief  of  passing  need,  of  kindly  and  neigh- 
borly relations  of  mutual  understanding  between  rich 
and  poor,  and  for  study  of  the  large  social  conditions 
and  forces  which  make  for  want  and  sin  or  for  educa- 
tion, purity,  health,  happiness,  and  power. 

Once  each  year  there  meets  a  national  body  of  charity 
workers  from  all  fields  :  members  of  state  boards,  state 


Charity  and  Correction.  279 

secretaries,  friendly  visitors,  residents  of  social  settle-     . 
ments,  pastors,  missionaries,  trustees  of  benevolent  in-  conference  of 
stitutions,  and  all  the  noble  army  of  those  who  toil  for  correcteionand 
the  suffering.    Their  discussions  are  collected  in  a  vol- 
ume, and  constitute  a  valuable  library  for  every  social 
student  and  practical  worker  for  the  poor.     Not  only 
philanthropists  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  but 
eminent  persons  from  Europe  are  heard  in  these  con- 
ventions.   It  is  highly  desirable  that  more  pastors  and 
other  church  leaders  should  become  members  of  this 
organization  whose  thoughts  and  purposes  are  inspired 
by  the  Author  of  the  Glad  Tidings,  and  whose  labors 
illustrate  the  "program  of  Christianity," 


Food  vs. 
surgery. 


Healthv  hate. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE    SOCIAL    SPIRIT    IN"  CONFLICT    WITH    ANTI-SOCIAL 
INSTITUTIONS. 

HITHERTO  we  have  dealt  almost  entirely  with  con- 
structive methods.  The  best  agencies  of  reform  are 
those  which  make  reformation  needless.  Right  forma- 
tion is  the  organic  process  of  giving  happiness  the 
held.  Medicine  and  surgery  have  a  small  place  in  the 
life  of  normal  infants  compared  with  milk,  light,  fresh 
air,  and  room  for  play.  And  yet  there  are  evils  to 
fight  and  there  is  a  call  for  heroic  adventurers  and  bold 
pioneers.  There  is  a  function  even  for  fanatics  and 
hobby-riders.  If  they  are  sane,  honest,  and  pure  of  life 
they  do  disagreeable  tasks  which  fastidious  critics  will 
not  touch  with  their  little  fingers,  gloved  as  they  are. 

There  are  so  many  anti-social  customs,  traditions, 
associations,  corporations,  and  institutions  that  a  mere 
list  of  them  might  fill  a  chapter.  Therefore  we  may 
select  a  few  contemporary  enemies  and  use  them  as 
illustrations  of  the  detestable.  Life  without  healthy 
hate  would  be  as  insipid  as  fruits  without  acid.  The 
meekness  which  the  New  Testament  commends  was  not 
embodied  in  Uriah  Heep,  but  rather  in  the  whip  of 
cords  and  the  invectives  against  robbers  of  widows. 
Oliver  Cromwell  was  a  good  soldier  because  he  was 
humble  before  God.  Bismarck  declared  that  the  Ger- 
mans fear  God — therefore  none  other. 

We  shall  not  imitate  the  big  poltroon  who  always 
selected  a  dwarf  for  his  attacks  and  challenges  ;  but  we 

280 


Conflict  with  Anti-Social  Institutions.          281 

cast   our  glove  in  the  face  of  a  giant,   the  drink  evil.    The  drink 
What  has  the  social  spirit  to  say  and  do  in  presence  ev'1' 
of  this  monster? 

First  in  order  of  duty  is  a  study  of  the  history  and 
causes  of  the  drink  evil.  Impatient  declaimers  protest 
against  this  scientific  procedure,  and  say  it  is  too  slow. 
But  there  is  an  increasing  number  of  citizens  who  are 
willing  to  join  the  sappers  and  miners  since  the  open 
assault  on  the  walls  has  met  with  indifferent  success. 

History  tells  us  that  we  are  dealing  with  an  old  foe. 
One  of  the  most  conspicuous  acts  of  Saint  Noah  after 
the  Deluge  was  to  get  drunk.  It  is  impossible  to  tell 
when  men  discovered  the  intoxicating  properties  of 
fermented  liquids.  The  religious  myths  of  Asiatic  and 
European  peoples  ascribed  the  invention  to  their  ras- 
cally gods.  When  food  was  coarse  and  unpalatable, 
the  higher  pleasures  few  and  feeble,  the  nobler  interests 
of  life  yet  undeveloped,  it  was  not  strange  that  animal 
excitement — war,  chase,  and  drunkenness — should  be 
sought  as  relief  from  the  monotony  of  existence. 

The  exhilaration  of  wine  has  been  the  theme  of  song 
and  story.  The  blessings  of  the  grape  have  been 
praised  in  sacred  books  because  the  purple  fruit  made 
glad  the  heart  and  helped  the  poor  to  forget  for  the 

hour  their  poverty.     Luther  lent  the  sanction  of  his  great 

.  .         •    The  V.01C? 

name  to  the  moderate  indulgence  in  the  use  of  intoxi-  of  antiquity. 

cants,  and  the  educated  men  of  his  race  have  generally 
followed  him.  To  this  day  the  medical  profession  is 
divided  on  the  question  of  the  physiological  value  of 
alcohol,  and  this  division  of  expert  opinion  is  naturally 
reflected  in  the  world  of  the  unlearned.  Appetite  casts 
its  vote  in  favor  of  indulgence  when  doctors  differ,  and 
the  opinion  of  a  physician  who  is  given  to  strong  drink 
is  open  to  suspicion. 


282 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


But  history  shows  not  only  that  evils  are  old  but  also 
Antiquity  has     that  they  are  evil  and  that  many  harmful  usages  have 

no  casting  vote.  J  J 

been  overcome.  Slavery  was  old,  but  not  eternal. 
Despotism  was  old,  but  found  its  conqueror  at  last. 
Hoary  antiquity  cannot  make  a  hurtful  custom  respecta- 
ble. The  names  of  saints  cannot  adorn  a  sin.  Indeed, 
the  very  fact  that  a  custom  originated  with  savages 
excites  the  inquiry  whether  it  should  not  be  left  to 
savages.  The  whole  question  must  be  decided  by 
modern  science  and  by  modern  morality.  There  may 
be  room  for  dispute  about  "  Bible  wines,"  but  we  are  in 
presence  of  a  contemporary  enemy  and  must  arm  our- 
selves with  the  latest  kind  of  weapons. 

In  the  shrieking  multitude  it  is  hard  to  make  the 
voice  heard  above  the  tumult.  Perhaps  the  best  way 
for  us  is  to  turn  aside  into  a  quiet  place  and  study  what 
has  been  offered  for  consideration.  No  sane  man  doubts 
the  evils  of  drunkenness.  Statistics  may  be  ever  so  ex- 
aggerated but,  sifted  thoroughly,  they  leave  a  terrible 
residuum  of  suffering  and  wrong.  The  tongue  of  Gough 
and  Father  Mathew,  the  pen  of  Dickens,  the  pencil  of 
Hogarth,  eloquent  as  they  were,  have  not  been  able  to 
set  forth  the  inexpressible,  endless  tragedy  of  the  drink 
traffic.  Only  those  who  have  suffered  from  the  enslav- 
ing appetite,  or  from  the  insane  conduct  of  its  thralls, 
can  ever  realize  the  horrors  of  rum.  Tables  of  statistics 
present  only  commercial  considerations,  but  back  of 
them  is  the  sea  of  wan  faces  of  the  miserable. 

The  attempt  to  reform  the  drinking  customs  of  the 
people  had  its  origin  in  the  studies  of  a  physician,  a 
patriot,  and  a  philanthropist,  chairman  of  the  Committee 
on  Independence  in  the  Continental  Congress  of  1776 — 
Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  a  name  identified  with  the  cause  of 
freedom  for  white  and  black.  In  the  year  1785  he  pub- 


History  of  the 

temperance 
movement  in 
America. 


Conflict  with  Anti-Social  Institutions.  283 

lished  a  pamphlet  entitled  ' '  The  Effects  of  Ardent 
Spirits  on  the  Human  Mind  and  Body."  While  the 
statistics  of  that  early  day  may  be  questioned,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  the  custom  of  drinking  ardent  spirits  was  Beginning  »t 
common,  fashionable,  and  destructive.  It  was  counte- 
nanced and  practiced  by  the  clergy,  and  it  was  the  dis- 
graceful exhibitions  of  hilarity  at  an  ordination  which 
roused  the  wrath  of  Dr.  Lyman  Beecher  and  moved  him 
to  life-long  opposition  to  the  evil. 

The  early  advocates  of  temperance  usually  went  no 
further  than  moderation  in  the  use  of  distilled  liquors, 
and  the  substitution  of  wine  and  beer  for  the  more  fiery 
stimulants. 

In  1826,  "The  American  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Temperance"  was  organized,  which  urged  total  ab- 
stinence by  educational  means,  but  left  liberty  of  action 
to  the  individual  and  permitted  the  use  of  alcohol  when 
advised  by  a  physician. 

It  was  not  long  before  "moral  suasion"  introduced 
"legal  suasion,"  since  many  people  had  come  to  believe  Legal  suasion 
that  the  use  of  alcohol  is  a  violation  of  moral  law,  a 
wrong  to  society  as  well  as  to  the  individual.  /  In  1838 
Massachusetts  enacted  a  law  which  prohibited  the  retail 
sale  of  spirituous  liquors.  In  1847  the  Supreme  Court 
rendered  a  decision  which  has  been  the  foundation  of  all 
subsequent  legislation,  fthis  decision  was  to  the  effect 
that  any  state  which  deems  the  retail  and  internal  traffic 
in  ardent  spirits  injurious  to  its  citizens,  and  calculated 
to  produce  idleness,  vice,  or  debauchery,  may  regulate 
or  restrain  or  prohibit  that  traffic,  if  it  thinks  proper.l 
Later  decisions  have  made  clear  the  right  of  a  state 
to  prohibit  not  only  the  retail  traffic  but  even  the  manu- 
facture of  intoxicants,  without  compensation  for  loss  to 
former  dealers.  All  modern  legislation  goes  upon  the 


284  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

principle  that  the  liquor  traffic,  if  not  absolutely  wrong, 
's  at  least  "extra-hazardous,"  and  in  need  of  exception- 
ally severe  and  rigorous"  regulation,  and  so  not  to  be 
treated  as  a  legitimate  and  honorable  business.  \  The 
Washingtonian  Movement,  based  on  moral  suasion  and 
the  total  abstinence  pledge,  without  resort  to  legal 
action,  swept  over  many  communities  after  1840.^ 
Gradually  the  teaching,  influence,  and  practice  of 

Protestants.  Protestant  churches  have  become  larger  factors  in  the 
temperance  cause.  Sermons,  discipline,  pastoral  advice, 
resolutions  of  local  and  national  conventions  and  repre- 
sentative bodies  have  been  powerful  agencies  in  educa- 
ting the  public  and  in  securing  strong  laws.  It  is  true 
that  the  moderate  use  of  wine  and  other  milder  bever- 
ages is  not  universally  condemned  as  a  sin,  but  total 
abstinence  is  the  ideal,  and  the  minister  who  "tipples" 
is  apt  to  topple  to  his  fall  in  social  disgrace. 

The  Church  Temperance  Society  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  seeks  to  unite  all  friends  of  temper- 
ance, total  abstinence,  advocates  of  moderation,  Prohibi- 
tionists, and  friends  of  regulation,  so  far  as  they  can 
agree  upon  methods  of  practical  reform. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  in  a  position  of  ex- 

cathoHcs  treme  difficulty,  owing  to  the  nature  of  its  terms  of  mem- 

bership and  the  heterogeneous  composition  of  its  con- 
stituency. Many  of  its  members  are  interested  in  the 
liquor  business.  But  there  is  a  respectable  number  of 
the  clergy  who  keep  alive  the  honorable  fame  of  Father 
Mathew.  In  1887  the  pope  wrote  a  letter  to  Bishop 
Ireland  which  must  strengthen  the  hands  of  the  clergy- 
men and  bishops  and  laymen  who  are  honestly  seeking 
to  combat  the  evils  of  intemperance,  so  sore  a  scourge 
among  the  people  of  that  large  and  influential  body  of 
Christians.  4  The  Catholic  Total  Abstinence  Union  of 


Conflict  with  Anti- Social  Institutions.  285 

America  was  founded  in  1872,  and  while  it  refrains  from 
political  action  it  is  a  very  important  agency  of  edu- 
cation in  the  principles  of  temperance.  /  The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  charitable  Society  of  St.  Vincent  of  Paul. 

The  National  Temperance  Society  anaTTuBlication 
House  was  organized  in  1865  and  is  pledged  to  promote  National 
' '  total  abstinence  for  the  individual  and  total  prohibition  society™1" 
for  the  state.'X'  It  has  issued  papers  and  books  by  the 
million  ;  sent  missionaries  among  the  freedmen  ;  sought 
to  urge  inquiries  and  legislation  at  Washington  and  at 
state  capitals  ;  held  conferences  and  conventions  in  all 
parts  of  the  country  ;  promoted  the  introduction  of 
temperance  publications  in  public  schools  and  into 
prisons,  jails,  shops,  hospitals,  and  needy  localities  ;  and 
has  sent  volumes  of  temperance  information  to  colored 
pastors  in  the  South. 

The  Independent  Order  of  Good  Templars  started 
upon  its  career  in  1851.  Its  members  are  pledged  to  Templars, 
practice  total  abstinence  ;  to  work  for  prohibition  and 
for  all  suitable  methods  of  restricting  the  evils  of  alco- 
hol. Women  are  admitted  to  membership  and  office 
on  equality  with  men.  The  order  has  enlisted  millions 
of  members  and  has  started  many  youth  in  the  path  of 
a  sober  life,  and  with  deep  convictions  upon  the  subject 
of  the  immorality  of  intemperance. 

The  Sons  of  Temperance  was  organized  in  1842,  and 
its  purposes  are  expressed  in  the  records  :  /  "  To  shield 
its  members  from  the  evils  of  intemperance  ;  to  afford 
mutual  assistance  in  case  of  sickness,  and  to  elevate  their 
characters  as  men. "^X' The  Temple  of  Honor,"  with  its 
ritual  and  symbolism,  has  made  successful  appeal  to 
those  whose  imagination  sought  gratification  in  the 
mysteries  and  allegories  of  ceremony  Mention  of  other 
less  conspicuous  societies  must  be  omitted. 


286  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

Various  societies  for  the  enforcement  of  existing  laws 
Enforcement       have  been  formed  from  time  to  time,  of  which  the  Citi- 

oflaw. 

zens'  Law  and  Order  League  may  be  taken  as  a  type. 
It  was  found  that  the  best  laws  are  neglected  unless  the 
officials  are  steadily  reminded  and  urged  to  do  their 
duty.  The  dealers  in  intoxicants  naturally  resist  the  re- 
strictive measures,  and  will  violate  the  laws  unless  there 
is  a  steady  pressure  of  public  opinion.  The  motto  of  the 
league  was  ' '  We  ask  only  obedience  to  law "  and  the 
watchword  was  "Save  the  boys."  The  Anti-Saloon 
League  has  a  similar  object. 

It  is  natural  that  women  should  be  deeply  interested 
in  the  temperance  cause.  If  there  are  any  physical  or 
Tb«w.c.T.u.  fjnanciai  benefits  in  the  drink  traffic  they  get  none  of 
these.  The  burdens  of  misery  are  borne  by  the  inno- 
cent. American  women,  as  a  rule,  are  total  abstainers, 
but  they  are  great  sufferers  from  the  drinking  habits  of 
the  ' '  lords  of  creation. ' ' 

The  Temperance  Crusade  which  spread  over  the 
Central  States  from  Ohio  was  an  outburst  of  woman's 
moral  indignation  against  the  destroyers  of  her  peace 
and  her  hope,  against  the  enemies  of  her  home.  With- 
out a  voice  in  the  election  of  magistrates  or  in  the 
making  of  laws  these  women  appealed  to  God  and  to 
conscience.  They  entered  saloons  and  drug  stores,  or 
watched,  prayed,  and  sang  hymns  in  the  street.  Some 
said  they  were  inspired  prophetesses  ;  some  called  them 
fanatics  and  fools.  The  enthusiasm  in  that  form  could 
not  last ;  but  it  gave  birth  to  a  permanent  society  of 
women  whose  doctrine  was  thus  stated  : 

Woman  is  ordained  to  lead  the  vanguard  of  this  great  move- 
ment, until  the  American  public  is  borne  across  the  abysmal 
transition  from  the  superstitious  notion  that  alcohol  is  food  to 
the  scientific  fact  that  "alcohol  is  poison,"  from  the  pusillani- 


Conflict  with  Anti-Social  Institutions.          287 

mous  concession  that  intemperance  is  a  great  evil  to  the 
responsible  conviction  that  the  liquor  traffic  is  a  crime. 

The  Woman's  National  Christian  Temperance  Union, 
at  present  the  most  conspicuous  organization  in  the 
temperance  movement,  was  organized  in  Cleveland, 
Ohio  in  1874.  This  society,  with  its  varying  fortunes 
and  unceasing  labor,  has  impressed  its  thought  upon 
the  world's  life.  This  society  has  comprehended  the 
many  elements  which  ente|r  into  the  problem,  and 
has  seen  that  the  evil  must  be  attacked  in  its  causes. 
Because  the  leaders  saw  that  ignorance  of  the  physical 
effects  of  alcohol  aggravated  the  danger  they  have  Aimsand 
persistently  sought  to  introduce  instruction  on  the  sub-  |nethod«- 
ject  in  the  public  schools,  in  Sunday-schools,  families, 
and  in  all  kinds  of  publications.  Having  observed  the 
deleterious  effects  of  nicotine  poison  on  growing  boys, 
they  have  worked  successfully  to  secure  laws  prohibiting 
the  sale  of  cigarettes  and  other  forms  of  tobacco  to 
minors.  They  have  established  industrial  homes  for 
girls,  and  caused  the  ' '  age  of  consent "  to  be  raised. 
The  titles  of  the  heads  of  department  will  illustrate  the 
breadth  of  the  movement  and  the  largeness  of  view  of 
the  founders  :  Preventive,  Educational,  Evangelistic, 
Social,  Legal,  Organization. 

Miss  Frances  E.  Willard,  founder  and  for  five  years 

3  Miss  Willard. 

president  of  the  World's  Woman's  Christian  Temper- 
ance Union,  and  long  president  of  the  general  society 
for  the  United  States,  was  the  author  of  the  motto 
so  characteristic  of  the  motives  of  good  women  every- 
where: "For  God  and  Home  and  Native  Land" 
— religion,  maternal  and  sisterly  devotion,  and  high 
patriotism.  Death  has  no  power  to  destroy  the  living 
forces  of  her  beautiful  life.  By  the  impetus  of  her 
splendid  personality,  the  vitality  of  her  ideas,  and 


288  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

the  persuasive  energy  of  her  published  words  she 
continues  to  speak  to  mankind. 

An  interesting  experiment  in  the  treatment  of 
disease  without  alcohol  is  found  in  the  National 
Temperance  Hospital.  The  work  of  oral  teaching 
is  organized  by  the  Women's  Lecture  Bureau. 
An  auxiliary  of  considerable  influence  is  the  Young 
Women's  Branch,  which  seeks  to  work  for  youth, 
and  to  turn  social  influence  and  custom  in  favor  of 
temperance  and  purity. 

The  social  purity  reform  is  carried  out  in  organic 
Social  purity.  connection  with  the  crusade  against  alcohol,  since  these 
noble  women  are  teaching  in  all  its  applications  the 
fundamental  religious  view  that  the  body  is  the  temple 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  should  not  be  defiled  by  drunk- 
enness, lust,  poisons,  drugs,  or  any  uncleanness.  The 
influence  of  an  instructed  multitude  of  mothers  working 
by  all  means,  and  especially  at  home,  is  beyond  calcu- 
lation. It  is  claimed  that  "scientific  temperance  in- 
struction ' '  is  given  in  all  but  four  states  and  that 
1 6,000, coo  children  have  been  brought  under  this  in- 
struction ;  10,000  have  been  enrolled  in  Bands  of 
Mercy,  and  thousands  more  in  Loyal  Temperance 
Legions  and  Anti-Cigarette  Leagues.  Millions  of  pages 
of  temperance  literature  have  been  distributed  and 
striking  advance  has  been  made  in  the  suppression  of 
obscene  literature. 

The  organization   is   committed  to  woman  suffrage 

and  to  a  prohibitory  legal  policy.     The  most  extrava- 

sua^geand       £ant  language  of  eulogy  cannot  express  the  obligation 

prohibition.        o{  tne  vfOT\d  to  these  devoted  and  able  women  so«well 

as  a  simple  record  of  their  achievements,  whose  story  is 

told  in  the  annual  reports  and  occasional  summaries. 

A  cable  of  many  strands  is  far  stronger  than  a  rod  of 


Conflict  with  Anti-Social  Institutions.  289 

the  same  diameter.     We  are  not  shut  up  to  a  single 

mode  of  attack  ;  artillery,  infantry,  cavalry,  and  starva- 

tion  are  all  military  forces  which  a  skilful  general  will  the  dnnk  evil- 

use    according    to    circumstances.     The    members    of 

society  who  realize  the  perils  of  the  use  of  alcohol  as  a 

beverage  have  as  their  allies-  education,  transformation 

of    customs,    and    governmental   control.       In   fact,  a 

reform  must  necessarily  proceed  to  develop  itself  in  this 

order,  until  all  available  troops  move  in  a  single  mass. 

If  we  could  only  get  the  doctors  and  physiologists  to 
move  harmoniously  there  would  be  a  shorter  campaign.  Educatio" 
Some  of  the  experts  are  pronounced  abstainers  and 
declare  that  even  as  medicine  alcohol  has  no  use. 
Many  others  assert  that  alcoholic  beverages  may  be 
used  as  medicines  in  sickness  or  with  advantage  even  in 
health.  All  recognize  the  dangers  of  excessive  use  of 
stimulants,  and  it  is  only  on  this  statement  that  we  can 
honestly  and  truthfully  claim  a  consensus  of  medical 
authority. 

Certain  it  is  that  educational  methods  have  made 
immense  progress  during  the  century.  It  is  desirable  Successof 
to  apprehend  clearly  just  what  ' '  moral  suasion ' '  has  eduu*J,i£nal 
achieved,  because  there  is  a  strong  tendency  among 
many  temperance  advocates  to  lose  faith  in  it,  to  under- 
value appeals  to  reason  and  experience,  in  order  to 
prove  the  necessity  of  legislation.  Moral  suasion  first 
raised  up  a  company  of  reformers  and  changed  beliefs 
and  family  customs  for  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people. 
Reason,  instruction,  and  persuasion  induced  multitudes 
of  people  to  become  more  careful  and  moderate  in  their 
use  of  stimulants;  then  followed  the  total  abstinence 
movement,  and  later  still  the  effort  to  restrict  or  pro- 
hibit the  traffic  in  liquors.  Beliefs  are  the  primary 
social  forces,  and  so  long  as  the  people  had  no  con- 


290 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


The  public 
schools. 


Allies  of  the 
temperance 
reform. 


Steady  brains 
wante'd. 


victions  as  to  the  physical  and  moral  perils  of  alcoholic 
beverages  they  would  not  modify  either  custom  or  law. 
And  beliefs  must  always  sustain  a  reform  after  it  has 
been  once  accepted.  Teaching  goes  deeper  than  law 
and  human  penalties. 

For  this  reason  it  is  wise  to  introduce  instruction  in 
the  public  schools,  in  connection  with  the  teaching  of 
human  anatomy,  physiology,  hygiene,  and  sanitation, 
in  respect  to  the  effect  of  alcohol,  tobacco,  and  other 
poisons,  upon  the  various  tissues  and  organs  of  the 
body.  Moral  and  religious  sanctions  enforce  the  laws 
of  health.  Ethics  learns  of  physiology  and  then  issues 
commands  to  conscience. 

Perhaps  legislation  will  be  found  to  be  only  a  subor- 
dinate factor  in  the  promotion  of  temperance.  Eco- 
nomic changes  are  going  forward  in  connection  with 
machine  industry,  the  factory  system,  and  modern 
transportation  which  will  make  drunkenness  simply 
impossible.  So  long  as  a  man  worked  by  himself,  at 
his  own  bench,  with  his  own  tools,  he  might  get  drunk 
without  serious  disturbance  of  industry.  That  con- 
dition belongs  to  the  past.  We  are  not  under  the  reign 
of  individualism,  but  of  increasing  collectivism. 

One  of  the  chief  railroad  corporations  in  the  world, 
the  Pennsylvania,  carries  out,  with  great  strictness,  its 
regulation  as  to  the  use  of  intoxicating  drinks  by  its 
employees.  Every  one  violating  the  rule  is  dismissed. 
This  is  a  matter  not  of  sentiment  but  of  pure,  hard 
business.  The  company  dare  not  intrust  its  great 
property  and  its  daily  freight  of  human  lives  to  men  who 
are  liable  to  be  deprived  of  their  reason,  the  steadiness 
of  whose  nerves  has  been  unsettled.  A  drink  of  whisky 
or  a  glass  of  beer  may  bring  on  a  catastrophe  costing 
enormously  in  life  and  money.  In  all  this  the  company 


Conflict  with  Anti-Social  Institutions.          291 

acts  with  that  wise  business  judgment  which  has  brought 
its  success.  Our  great  employers  of  labor  have  learned 
the  same  lesson.  The  proprietor  of  a  shipbuilding  yard 
said,* "Many  of  our  men  are  worth  little  for  an  hour  or 
two  of  the  afternoon,  because  of  the  beer  which  they 
have  taken  at  their  lunch./  Another  employer  said, 
"That  man  used  to  earn  $5  a  day.  He  was  richly 
worth  it,  we  were  glad  to  pay  it ;  but  drink  gradually 
impaired  the  accuracy  of  his  eye,  the  steadiness  of  his 
nerves,  the  delicacy  of  his  touch  ;  and  now  we  can  give 
him  only  a  dollar  a  day,  and  he  is  hardly  worth  that." 
Not  even  to  moderate  drinkers  can  safely  be  intrusted 
the  building  of  ships,  on  whose  exact  and  faithful  con- 
struction will  depend  the  safety  of  the  ship  in  the  hour 
of  storm  and  the  honor  of  the  nation  in  the  hour  of 
battle. 

Most   men  want  life   insurance.     But   the  insurance 

.  Life  insurance. 

companies  require  medical  examinations  and  these  ex- 
aminations tend  to  grow  more  careful  and  thorough. 
The  "  tobacco  heart,"  the  alcoholic  pulse  and  skin,  and 
the  beery  bloat  stand  in  the  way  of  securing  a  policy. 
Mutual  benefit  societies,  trades  unions,  and  all  such  or- 
ganizations are  learning  to  enforce  sobriety  whenever 
common  interests  suffer  from  the  unreliable  conduct  of 
the  drunkard. 

Fashion  has  changed.  Wine  is  used  by  many  people 
' '  in  society, ' '  but  not  by  all,  and  intoxication  is  a  Fashlon- 
social  disgrace.  Total  abstinence  is  no  longer  regarded 
anywhere  as  a  bar  to  good-fellowship.  Woman's  influ- 
ence is  steadily  rising  all  over  the  civilized  world,  and  it 
is  usually  favorable  to  temperance,  if  not  always  to  total 
abstinence. 

Prohibition  in  actual  practice,  and  apart  from  pure 
theory,  is  simply  another  method  of  regulating  drinking 


292 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Legislation ; 
prohibitory 
laws. 


Local  option. 


customs.  The  appetite  for  stimulants,  the  organic 
cravings  for  excitement,  remain  and  they  manifest  them- 
selves. The  passion  for  stimulants  is  so  imperious  and 
general  in  all  European  people  that  it  demands  satis- 
faction and  calls  into  existence  a  body  of  dealers  in- 
terested in  the  business  of  selling  alcoholic  drinks.  The 
physical  craving  thus  forms  a  partnership  or  a  con- 
spiracy with  motives  of  gain,  and  these  two  forces  enlist 
all  the  resources  of  craving  to  evade  the  provisions 
of  law.  In  many  communities,  where  the  use  of  beer 
and  wine  is  believed  to  be  innocent,  there  is  a  moral 
revolt  against  what  the  people  sincerely  regard  an  in- 
fringement of  freedom.  Under  such  conditions  prohibi- 
tion does  not  destroy  the  business  but  modifies*  and 
restricts  it  in  various  degrees,  not  without  some  unde- 
sirable consequences. 

On  one  side  it  may  fairly  be  claimed  that  where 
the  great  majority  of  the  population  have  long  lived 
in  America,  where  cities  are  few  and  small,  and  where 
agitation  has  led  the  majority  to  regard  the  use  of 
ardent  spirits  as  a  moral  evil,  a  prohibitory  law  may 
be  so  enforced  as  to  keep  the  traffic  actually  away  from 
some  districts  and  to  compel  it  to  hide  in  large  towns. 
Whether  the  law  really  diminishes  drunkenness  is  diffi- 
cult to  affirm  because  the  law  is  only  one  of  the  educa- 
tive agencies  at  work  in  such  states.  The  dark  side  of 
the  picture  ought  not  to  be  concealed  in  our  reformatory 
zeal.  Many  candid  and  well-informed  witnesses  declare 
that  prohibition  intensifies  the  vices  of  deception,  fraud, 
perjury,  social  animosity,  contempt  for  legal  authority, 
corruption  of  courts  and  juries. 

One  way  of  introducing  prohibition  is  through  the 
local  option  law  which  prevails  in  some  states.  In  favor 
of  this  system  it  is  urged  that  when  the  commonwealth 


Conflict  with  Anti-Social  Institutions.  293 

cannot  be  brought  to  enact  and  enforce  a  prohibitory 
policy  it  ought  to  permit  a  community  which  desires  to 
do  so  to  protect  itself  against  an  institution  which  is 
hateful  to  the  majority  of  the  people.  The  best  tradi 
tions  of  our  national  history  are  favorable  to  town 
democracy.  But  this  method  has  a  narrow  field  of 
usefulness.  A  town  may  vote  "  no  license"  and  yet  be 
abundantly  supplied  by  a  city  just  over  a  bridge.  Some 
policy  at  least  as  wide  as  a  state  is  demanded,  for  the 
evil  is  national  in  extent  and  power. 

In  some  states  the  fundamental  law  or  the  public 
opinion  will  not  tolerate  legal  recognition  of  the  drink  Mulct  laws, 
traffic  so  far  as  to  give  a  license  ;  but  when  a  citizen  ac- 
tually ventures  to  set  up  his  shop  the  state  compels  him 
to  pay  an  annual  fine.  The  motives  for  this  legislation 
are  mixed,  but  the  central  and  avowed  purpose  is  to 
hamper  and  restrict  trade  which  the  people  cannot  at 
once  extinguish. 

Assuming  that  the  license  system  is  accepted  by  a 
commonwealth  as,  on  the  whole,  the  most  satisfactory 
legal  system  of  regulating  a  traffic  which  it  is  thought 
impossible  to  suppress,  the  problem  of  specific  measures 
still  remains.  In  the  conclusions  of  an  important  recent 
study  President  Eliot  makes  several  practical  sugges- 
tions. Licenses  should  not  be  granted  for  more  than 
one  year.  Under  favorable  circumstances  the  law  which 
restricts  the  number  of  saloons  by  the  population,  as 
one  saloon  to  500  or  1,000  inhabitants,  has  been  found 
to  limit  the  open  places  of  temptation.  He  commends 
the  law  which  forbids  the  presence  of  a  saloon  within 
500  feet  of  a  public  park,  or  within  a  short  distance  of  a 
schoolhouse.  In  some  cities  the  saloons  are  confined  to 
the  business  portion  and  thus  kept  at  a  distance  from 
the  residences.  All  this  educates  the  people  to  regard 


294 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Desirable 
restrictions. 


Government 
ownership. 


Growth  of  the 
liquor  traffic 
in  America. 


the  saloon  as  a  menace  of  all  good  and  to  become  ac- 
customed to  the  idea  of  abolishing  it  altogether. 

President  Eliot  summarizes  the  general  restrictions 
which  should  be  sought  as  follows  :  There  should  be  no 
selling  to  minors,  intoxicated  persons,  or  habitual 
drunkards.  There  should  be  no  selling  on  holidays, 
when  multitudes  are  idle.  Places  of  entertainment  must 
not  be  permitted  to  sell  liquor,  and  no  games  or  sport  of 
any  sort  should  be  tolerated  in  saloons.  The  place  of 
sale  should  be  open  to  inspection  from  the  street,  so  that 
the  force  of  public  opinion  may  be  fully  felt  by  custom- 
ers and  dealers. 

The  experiment  with  the  ' '  dispensary  ' '  system  in 
South  Carolina  compels  public  study  of  the  principle  of 
direct  government  control  of  the  liquor  traffic.  The  re- 
sults of  the  study  of  the  "Committee  of  Fifty/'  how- 
ever, do  not  indicate  that  tfie  principle  has  yet  had 
a  fair  trial  in  the  Southern  States,  or  in  any  other  in 
this  country.  The  chief  reason  for  direct  control  of  the 
traffic  by  the  government  is  that  this  will  remove  the 
motive  of  private  gain.  But  so  long  as  the  salaries 
of  agents  rise  and  fall  with  the  amount  of  patronage, 
so  long  this  principal  object  will  be  defeated. 

All  these  plans  have  been  tried  and  the  custom  of 
drinking  has,  apparently,  grown  in  America.  The  in- 
fluence of  immigrants  from  beer-drinking  countries  has 
had  its  effect.  In  1850  the  consumption  of  all  kinds  of 
liquors  averaged  4.08  gallons  per  inhabitant  ;  in  1892  it 
was  17.04  gallons.  During  this  period  the  consumption 
of  spirits  diminished  from  2^  to  \y2  gallons  per  head, 
but  beer-drinking  advanced  from  1.58  to  15.10  gallons 
per  head  of  population.  Wine-drinking  increased 
slightly,  from  0.27  to  0.44  gallons  per  head.  (Professor 
Gould.) 


Conflict  with  Anti-Social  Institutions.  295 

In  sheer  despair  of  enforcing  a  prohibitory  law,  and  in 
moral  revolt  against  license  system,  many  friends  of  TheGothen- 

.  burg  system. 

temperance  are  considering  thejjicandinavian  system,  \ 
not  with  the  expectation  of  imitating  it,  but  in  hope  of 
learning  something  from  it.  The  essential  elements  of 
this  system  have  been  carefully  studied  and  stated  by 
Professor  E.  R.  L.  Gould,  Mr.  J.  G.  Brooks,  Mr.  John 
Koren,  and  others,  and  they  have  strongly  urged  it  for 
adoption. 

A  few  years  ago  a  bill  was  introduced  into  the  legisla- 
ture of  Massachusetts  authorizing  towns  to  adopt  the 
"Norwegian  System,"  and  the  measure  was  defeated 
chiefly  by  the  liquor  interest,  by  a  single  vote.  It  pro- 
vided that  a  town  might  vote  to  license  companies,  not 
more  than  one  to  each  city  or  town,  under  certain  regu- 
lations. All  hope  of  profits  is  cut  off  by  the  provision 
that  after  five  per  cent  interest  has  been  paid  on  capital 
the  profits  shall  go  to  the  aid  of  objects  of  general  public 
benefit  and  utility,  as  industrial  education,  coffee-houses 
and  reading  rooms,  parks,  hospitals,  public  baths,  and 
sanitary  improvements. 

On  the  basis  of  Scandinavian  experience  it  is  claimed 
that  such  a  measure  would  work  educationally  in  the  its  elements, 
direction  of  the  extinction  of  the  traffic.  No  individual 
is  interested  in  the  profits  of  the  business.  The  state  or 
the  town  does  not,  as  in  the  South  Carolina  law,  have  a 
direct  profit  from  the  sale.  Civil  service  rules  govern 
the  employees  and  the  entire  affair  is  kept  out  of 
politics.  No  liquor  is  sold  to  minors  and  drunkards, 
because  there  is  no  motive  to  push  the  sale.  It  is  easy 
to  enforce  the  restrictions  as  to  hours  of  closing.  It  is 
an  essential  part  of  the  plan  that  in  evenings  halls  must 
be  provided  for  the  resort  of  working  people,  places  for 
labor  exchange  and  entertainment,  where  alcoholic 


296  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

drinks  are  unknown.  Gambling,  loafing,  impure  litera- 
ture, and  immoral  exhibitions  are  excluded.  Distillers 
and  brewers  no  longer  control  the  saloon  as  they  do  in 
America,  and  powerful  whisky  rings,  with  corruption 
funds  and  lobbyists  working  upon  the  electorate  and 
upon  legislatures,  are  banished. 

Mrs.  Mary  A.  Livermore  represents  the  rational  atti- 
tude of  Prohibitionists  toward  this  reform  : 

First,  last,  and  always,  I  am  a  Prohibitionist,  and  I  favor  the 

Testimonies.       Norwegian  Bill,  because,  if  rightly  understood,  its  tendency 

will  be  toward  prohibition,  and  if  our  good  temperance  people 

would  carefully  study  the  bill  I  think  their  objections  would 

disappear. 

And  the  testimony  of  Mr.  Gould  will  have  weight 
with  all  who  know  him  and  his  valuable  studies  of  social 
conditions  in  Europe  and  America  : 

S      \5      j 

I  undertook  a  mission  for  the  United  States  Department  of 

Labor  to  Sweden  and  Norway,  for  the  purpose  of  studying 
and  reporting  upon  the  methods  of  controlling  the  liquor 
traffic  adopted  by  -those  countries.  I  went  there  absolutely 
without  prejudice  of  any  sort ;  I  came  away  a  convert  to  the 
system.  .  .  .  It  is  a  measure  of  progressive  reform,  sound 
in  principle,  operating  harmoniously  with  well-defined  laws  of 
social  advance.  ...  Its  trial  will  do  more  than  anything 
else  yet  suggested  to  mitigate  an  intolerable  social  curse. 

In  the  present  imperfect  condition  of  human  nature 
the  Humane  Society  for  the  protection  of  dumb  animals 
society.  and  of  little  children  from  cruelty  of  thoughtless  and 

unfeeling  men  is  a  social  necessity.  There  remain  in 
our  civilized  communities  stray  savages,  ' '  relics  ' '  of 
primitive  man,  who  have  not  yet  realized  the  meaning  of 
the  age,  who  have  not  learned  that  animals  have  rights 
and  that  sentient  beings  have  nerves.  We  cannot 
permit  these  dwarfed  natures  to  act  out  their  impulses 
any  more  than  we  can  open  the  tiger  cages  of  men- 


Conflict  with  Anti-Social  Institutions.  297 

ageries.  Sympathy  which  does  not  defend  the  speech- 
less lacks  something  of  meeting  the  moral  claims  of  this 
century.  The  law  of  the  Pentateuch  gave  the  beasts  of 
burden  a  day  of  rest,  and  modern  cities  have  not  yet 
fully  attained  the  level  of  the  best  humanity.  The  local 
society  should  secure  suitable  ordinances  and  regula- 
tions, have  agents  to  prosecute  persons  guilty  of  cruelty, 
educate  children  in  chivalry  and  kindness,  and  provide 
means  of  securing  to  horses,  cattle,  and  pets  reasonable 
treatment.  The  reactive  influence  of  this  social  move- 
ment is  seen  in  gentle  manners  in  home  and  school,  in 
kinder  treatment  of  employees,  and  in  more  genial 
customs  of  street  and  assembly. 

The  most  radical  reforms  are  those  which  touch  the 
domestic  circle.     In  this  connection  it  is  a  pleasure  to 
mention  one  of  the  most  efficient  and  praiseworthy  or-  The  Nau0nai 
ganizations  of  our  age — The  National  League  for  the  pro&ctiotT of'e 
Protection  of  the  Family,  of  which  Rev.  S.  W.  Dike,   theF*mily- 
D.D.,  Auburndale,  Mass.,  is  permanent  secretary. 

The  moral  disintegration  of  the  family  by  conflict, 
strife,  cruelty,  and  divorce  is  far  more  sad  and  ruinous 
than  the  sudden  and  premature  dissolution  by  the  death 
of  parents.  Divorces  have  been  increasing  in  this 
country  at  an  appalling  rate.  The  statistical  exhibit, 
although  unfairly  compared  with  European  tables,  is, 
on  the  best  interpretation,  enough  to  make  us  tremble 
for  our  country  and  our  civilization.  After  all  miti- 
gating considerations  are  urged  we  must  acknowledge 
that  our  nation  is  seriously  in  danger  of  general  degra- 
dation of  the  marital  relation. 

This    important    League    was    formed    to    resist 
these  demoralizing  forces.     It  has  proceeded  upon  these  "'  metho<i- 
lines  of   work  —  investigation,    publication,    education, 
legislation,    and   watching  the  administration   of    laws 


298  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

affecting  the  family.  It  was  largely  due  to  the  efforts  of 
this  society  that  the  United  States  government,  through 
the  Labor  Bureau,  compiled  a  monumental  report  on 
divorces  and  divorce  legislation,  and  has  passed  uniform 
regulations  on  the  subject  for  the  territories.  It  is  no 
longer  thought  wise  to  urge  an  amendment  to  the 
constitution  authorizing  Congress  to  pass  a  uniform  law 
for  all  the  states,  since  this  would  consume  many  years 
and,  probably,  not  secure  progress.  The  league  is 
successfully  urging  the  legislatures  to  raise  the  standards 
and  improve  the  laws  respecting  marriage  and  divorce. 
The  secretary  has  rendered  a  valuable  national  service 
by  writing  and  lecturing,  and  directing  public  thought 
The  secretary,  and  action.  He  constantly  urges  the  preparation  of 
records  and  the  collection  of  statistics  of  births,  mar- 
riages, and  divorces.  He  shows  the  connection  between 
demoralized  homes  and  the  increase  of  juvenile  crime. 
He  makes  an  impressive  statement  of  the  fact  that 
parents  are  the  persons  primarily  responsible  for  habits 
of  intemperance,  and  that  the  home  must  be  made 
the  chief  organ  of  temperance  reform.  It  is  to  the 
family  more  than  to  school  or  law  that  he  must  look  for 
the  most  effective  influences  relating  to  the  control  and 
regulation  of  the  physical  appetites,  and  the  conquest  of 
the  vices  which  attend  their  perversion.  He  concen- 
trates public  attention  on  the  family  as  the  primary  in- 
stitution for  cultivating  social  impulses,  for  holding  and 
distributing  property,  for  training  in  good  citizenship, 
for  the  most  fundamental  educational  work,  and  for 
keeping  alive  the  deepest  interest  in  religious  knowledge 
''  and  worship.  The  name  of  the  society,  as  all  agree, 
should  be  changed  to  correspond  to  the  larger  and  more 
positive  program  of  action.  Every  church  should  sub- 
scribe at  least  five  dollars  and  make  the  pastor  or  some 


Conflicl  with  Anti-Social  Institutions.  299 


other  person  a  local  member  of  the  league.  The  society 
could  make  excellent  use  of  a  much  larger  income  than 
it  now  enjoys  from  all  sources.  The  annual  reports, 
which  are  sent  to  all  members,  are  important  contribu- 
tions to  the  literature  of  divorce  reform  and  domestic 
amelioration. 

The  most  efficient  instrument  of  reforms  relating  to 
chastity  is  the  family.  The  newspaper,  the  lecture,  the  Social  P""1?- 
sermon  cannot  discuss  the  subject  very  far  without 
doing  more  harm  than  good.  All  that  can  be  said  di- 
rectly should  be  told  youth,  at  the  proper  time,  by  the 
parents ;  and  all  that  is  necessary  can  be  learned  from 
such  a  book  as  Martin's  "The  Human  Body,"  and,  for 
younger  minds,  Margaret  W.  Morley's  (l  A  Song  of 
Life." 

As  there  are  mothers  who  have  not  the  high  ideals  or 
the  scientific  knowledge  which  prepare  them  for  this 
teaching  function  it  has  been  found  useful  to  hold 
' '  Mothers'  Meetings ' '  as  normal  schools  of  domestic 
morality.  Pure-minded  matrons  have,  in  these  assem- 
blies, an  opportunity  to  reach  hundreds  of  children 
through  the  mothers. 

The  legislative  measures  for  restricting  the  evils  of 
impurity  cannot  be  adequately  treated  here.  But  some 
elements  of  law  must  be  mentioned  :  all  pictures,  ges- 
tures, exhibitions,  and  newspaper  articles  or  advertise- 
ments which  are  unfit  for  children  to  see  should  be  at 
least  driven  out  of  sight.  Young  girls  exposed  to 
danger  should  be  at  once  removed  from  the  vicious 
neighborhood.  The  corrupters  of  youth  should  be 
hunted  down  and  punished  to  the  utmost  limit  of 
severity. 

After  all,  there  is  no  security  save  in  a  purity  which  is 
intelligent  and  not  mere  innocent  ignorance  ;  in  lofty 


300  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

ideals,  splendid  ambitions,  useful  occupation,  reverence 
for  woman  next  to  God,  and  a  devotion  to  the  welfare  of 
society  which  makes  the  soul  shrink  from  anti-social  acts 
as  from  leprosy. 

The  vice  of  gambling  can  boast  antiquity  as  great 

Gambling.  as  that  of  drunkenness.  With  multitudes  of  men  it  is 
a  passion  absolutely  independent  of  the  liquor  habit, 
and  pitilessly  consumes  them  like  a  fever.  Public 
gambling  can  be  suppressed  by  the  police,  if  there  is  a 
strong  local  demand  for  it.  The  laws  are  usually  suffi- 
cient for  this  purpose.  Happily  the  lottery  is  not 
intrenched  in  national  law  and  custom  in  the  United 
States  as  it  is  in  France  and  Germany.  The  recent 
victories  of  reformers  over  the  lottery  companies  ought 
to  be  remembered  in  hours  of  discouragement  when 
temporary  defeat  has  befallen  the  leaders  of  other  re- 
forms. Every  such  gain  makes  the  next  advance  more 
promising.  Slavery  is  dead.  The  lottery  is  dead. 
Next! 

All  other  reforms  depend  greatly  on  Sabbath  customs. 

Sunday  rest.  A  general  and  profound  change  of  belief  has  taken 
place  in  American  thought  on  this  subject  during  this 
century.  The  New  England  Sabbath  is  no  longer  pos- 
sible or  desirable.  The  legitimate  interests  of  human 
life  are  too  varied  to  justify  the  use  of  one  day  in  seven 
precisely  as  our  New  England  ancestors  occupied  its 
hours.  The  modern  system  of  industry  and  transporta- 
tion has  compelled  the  town  to  feel  daily  the  life  of  the 
nation  and  of  the  world.  The  tide  of  foreign  immi- 
gration has  brought  among  us  millions  of  honest  and 
religious  people  who  hold  with  the  cardinals  and 
Luther,  not  with  Calvin,  in  respect  to  the  observance 
of  the  Lord's  Day.  To  ignore  these  considerations  ia 
to  waste  life  on  a  chimera. 


Conflict  with  Anti-Social  Institutions.          301 

Experience  proves  that  we  can  secure  a  day  of  rest  on 
the  Lord's  Day  by  law.  Ordinary  industry  can  be  sus-  ofu,a^.ion 
pended,  not  absolutely  but  within  reasonable  limits,  and 
all  employees  can  be  secured  thirty-six  hours  some  time 
in  each  week  in  all  occupations.  On  this  platform  we 
can  unite  all  parties. 

But  a  day  of  rest  from  ordinary  occupations  is  an  op- 
portunity, not  an  achievement.  When  the  one  demon 
of  grinding  toil  has  been  expelled  and  the  house  swept 
and  garnished,  seven  devils  are  waiting  to  enter,  unless 
the  good  genius  of  the  place  has  invited  a  house  full  of 
good  company.  Puritanism  has  much  to  answer  for  in 
diffusing  abroad  in  this  country  a  general  impression 
that  Sunday  must  be  a  day  of  boredom  and  misery,  in 
which  diversion  is  a  sin. 

Sunday  reformers  have  not  reached  even  the  middle 
of  their  social  task  when  they  have  released  the  city 
multitudes  from  the  shop  and  closed  the  saloon.  The 
question  of  what  can  be  done  with  twelve  hours  of  idle 
time  once  a  week  for  70,000,000  of  people  is  one  of  the 
most  tremendous  problems  of  our  age.  Church-going  Diversity 

.    .  5    of  Sunday 

cannot  meet  the  need.  The  ministry  cannot  have  the  thoughts, 
monopoly  of  Sunday.  Culture  requires  many  special- 
ized agencies.  If  we  assume  merely  a  negative  attitude, 
and  are  repressive  and  prohibitive  in  our  methods,  we 
shall  appear  to  be  the  enemies  of  joy  and  health  in  the 
eyes  of  millions,  and  we  shall  misrepresent  the  Lord  of 
the  Sabbath. 

The  English  custom  of  having  for  weary  people  a 
"Pleasant  Sunday   Afternoon"    has   been   introduced  SlHJda"nt 
into  this  country,  and  it  is  an  example  of  the  positive  Afternoon.- 
and    beneficent    method  of    reform    by   displacement. 
Bright  music  is  the  chief  element  in   these   meetings. 
Pictures,  cheerful  talks,  instructive  addresses,  readings 


302 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Needs  of 
workingmen. 


Jesus  vs.  the 
Pharisees. 


from  the  best  literature,  social  converse,  a  cup  of  tea, 
the  sympathetic  hearing  of  grievances  and  troubles  and 
wrongs,  hints  of  a  practical  way  out — all  within  one 
glad  and  inspiring  hour — that  is  a  "  Pleasant  Sunday 
Afternoon."  It  is  the  Beatitudes  of  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  which  makes  the  prohibition  of  Sinai  unneces- 
sary. A  lamp  will  drive  out  darkness  where  a  club 
of  knotted  oak  would  make  no  impression. 

The  great  masses  of  workingmen  are  honest  and  have 
good  purposes.  They  crave  recreation.  They  will 
have  it  and  they  ought  to  have  it.  Cramped  muscles 
and  repressed  faculties  cry  out  in  agony  for  something 
different  from  the  monotony  of  the  bench  and  the  fur- 
row. We  know  what  Jesus  said  of  those  Pharisaic  re- 
ligionists who  were  shocked  at  his  doing  good  on  the 
Sabbath  day.  His  example  is  still  before  us.  If  our 
ministers  and  deacons  would  just  leave  their  fine 
churches  a  few  Sundays,  and  move  around  among 
the  workingmen  and  rude  boys  whose  homes  are 
absolutely  without  attractions,  they  would  often  gain 
a  new  notion  of  the  best  way  to  spend  Sunday.  The 
' '  European  Sunday ' '  has  many  bad  features,  but  the 
Puritan  Sunday  at  the  other  extreme  is  from  the  stand- 
point of  health,  knowledge,  beauty,  and  social  order  an 
ideal  whose  realization  would  bring  national  decay. 
What  social  welfare  requires  is  neither  the  Puritan,  the 
Pharisaic,  nor  the  libertine's  Sunday,  but  the  Lord's 
Day,  which  was  ' '  made  for  man  " ;  a  day  so  sweet,  so 
calm,  so  joyous,  so  full  of  all  beauty  in  song  and  picture 
and  story,  that  the  weary  millions  who  have  known  its 
pleasures  will  bless  the  Giver  for  its  ever-welcome  hours. 
Here  and  there  we  find  the  beginnings  of  some  efforts 
to  realize  these  dawning  ideas.  But  the  paralysis,  the 
superstition,  and  the  apathy  of  tradition  and  custom  re- 


Conflict  with  Anti-Social  Institutions.  303 

strict  our  freedom  of  invention  and  experiment.  Mean- 
time to  the  multitudes  who  might  be  helped  Sunday  is 
an  unmitigated  curse,  the  occasion  of  all  the  debauchery 
which  must  go  with  idleness,  and  from  revolt  against  a 
social  order  which  presents  many  frowns  but  few  smiles. 
We  have  as  a  Christian  people  yet  to  learn  that  joy  and 
hope  are  better  regenerative  agencies  than  scolding  and 
tears. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


Christianity 
the  mainspring 
of  progress. 


Relation  of 
the  churches 
to  Christianity. 


THE    INSTITUTIONS    OF    IDEALS  :    THE    ANCIENT    CON- 
FEDERACY  OF   VIRTUE. 

J.  R.  LOWELL  not  only  explained  the  interior  im- 
pulses of  the  anti-slavery  movement,  but  the  inspiration 
of  all  life-giving  enterprises,  when  he  wrote  : 

It  is  not  partisanship,  it  is  not  fanaticism,  that  has  forced 
this  matter  of  anti-slavery  upon  this  American  people,  it  is  the 
spirit  of  Christianity,  which  appeals  from  prejudices  and  predi- 
lections to  the  moral  consciousness  of  the  individual  man ; 
that  spirit  as  elastic  as  air,  penetrative  as  heat,  invulnerable  as 
sunshine,  against  which  creed  after  creed  and  institution  after 
institution  have  measured  their  strength  and  been  confounded  ; 
that  restless  spirit  which  refuses  to  crystallize  in  any  sect 
or  form,  but  persists,  a  divinely  commissioned  radical  and 
reconstructor,  in  trying  every  generation  with  a  new  dilemma 
between  ease  and  interest  on  the  one  hand,  and  duty  on  the 
other.  .  .  .  Shall  it  be  said  that  its  kingdom  is  not  of  this 
world  ?  In  one  sense,  and  that  the  highest,  it  certainly  is 
not ;  but  just  as  certainly  Christ  never  intended  those  words 
to  be  used  as  a  subterfuge  by  which  to  escape  our  responsi- 
bilities of  business  and  politics. 

Christianity  is  the  life  of  the  Eternal  Word  in  the 
souls  of  men,  and  it  thrives  and  blossoms  everywhere. 
Its  clusters  of  fruit  hang  by  all  highways,  its  springs 
well  up  by  every  path.  It  can  use  any  institution.  Its 
sky  arches  over  all  peoples  and  kingdoms.  It  is  the 
moral  atmosphere  of  every  living  soul.  It  is  the  light  of 
every  man  that  cometh  into  the  world.  But  the  church 
is  that  human  institution  whose  avowed  and  conscious 
purpose  it  is  to  teach  the  highest  truth,  to  keep  alive 

304 


TTie  Institutions  of  /deals.  305 

the  ethical  conscience,  to  awaken  the  spiritual  faculties, 
to  be  a  living  witness  by  word  and  deed  of  the  indwell- 
ing Christ.  The  church  is  not  to  be  identified  with  the 
perfected  kingdom  of  God,  but  it  is  the  chief  instrument 
of  establishing  that  blessed  reign. 

Assuming  that  man  is  naturally  a  religious  being,  as 
he  is  naturally  a  musical  being,  a  social  being,  a  reason-  The  church  a 

natural  growth. 

ing  creature — then  the  church  is  a  legitimate  institution. 
It  is  not  imposed  on  man,  but  grows  out  of  man's 
needs  and  cravings.  It  expresses,  manifests,  and  culti- 
vates faculties  which  are  necessary  to  human  complete- 
ness, to  perfect  joy,  to  rich  life.  Man  is  not  entirely 
man  till  he  is  "born  again,"  that  is,  until  out  of  self- 
consciousness,  aesthetic  consciousness,  moral  conscious- 
ness, has  developed  a  God-consciousness,  a  sense  of 
dependence  on  and  relation  to  the  Invisible,  an  obliga- 
tion to  the  Eternal  Righteousness,  a  grateful  and  loving 
response  to  Infinite  Goodness.  The  family  exists  be- 
cause it  expresses  certain  needs  of  human  life,  and  it 
persists  through  the  centuries  because  it  is  the  most 
suitable  institution  for  its  purposes.  The  galleries  and 
schools  of  art  have  come  into  being  because  there  is  in 
humanity  a  taste  for  beauty.  Academies  and  colleges 
spring  up  because  man  has  a  divinely  implanted  desire 
to  learn  and  comprehend.  Court-houses  and  legal 
systems  are  developed  out  of  the  human  sense  of  justice  rhe  mauifcfc. 
and  social  requirements  of  order.  The  church,  in  a  religious  life 
similar  way,  has  come  to  exist  because  man  is  a  creature 
who  holds  commerce  with  the  sky  ;  because  he  has 
infinite  wants  and  loves  and  hopes.  All  social  institu- 
tions are  human,  since  they  manifest  human  desires, 
and  all  are  divine  because  the  universe  is  a  manifesta- 
tion of  that  mysterious  will  "we  so  much  wish  yet 
dread  to  learn/' 


306  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

If  the  church  did  nothing  else  but  minister  to  the 
The  specific  religious  wants  of  man  its  existence  would  be  socially 
theCchurch.  justifiable.  Religion  has  created  a  magnificent  litera- 
ture of  poetry,  philosophy,  oratory,  sacred  sentences  of 
wisdom,  maxims,  and  suggestions  of  unbounded  realms 
of  spiritual  heritage.  It  is  in  the  church  that  men 
discover  a  freedom,  an  expansion,  an  enfranchisement 
which  are  denied  them  amidst  the  petty  cares  and 
trivial  occupations  of  street  and  shop.  This  ' '  literature 
of  power ' '  lives  long  after  the  ' '  literature  of  knowl- 
edge" has  become  antiquated.  Scientific  treatises  are 
soon  pushed  aside  by  recent  discoveries,  but  the 
Psalms,  the  orations  of  Isaiah,  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,  the  letters  of  Paul,  have  undying  influence. 
Religion  has  not  only  a  literature,  but  an  art.  Its 
architecture  is  most  sublime;  its  "storied  windows 
richly  dight ' '  are  glorious  with  color  and  sacred  memo- 
ries ;  its  symbolism  suggests  ineffable  themes ;  its  rites 
bind  centuries  to  eternity,  and  the  living  with  the 
mighty  dead  ;  its  poetry,  heroic  and  lyric,  carries  on  its 
broad  current  the  aspirations  of  the  race  ;  its  music  of 
anthems,  hymns,  songs,  psalms,  and  oratorios  is,  of 
itself,  worth  one  day  in  seven  to  hear  and  enjoy. 

But  the  church  does  not  and  cannot  minister  to  the 
social  works  of  religious  wants  of  men  without  affecting  all  life.  When 
its  bells  chime  out  to  summon  the  devout  to  prayer,  a 
hush  falls  on  wheels  and  hammers,  and  the  solemn 
vibrations  influence  every  calling.  It  is  this  "social 
work ' '  of  the  church  which  is  the  particular  theme  of 
this  closing  chapter,  and  especially  the  forms  taken  by 
that  work  in  the  United  States.  When  we  raise  trees 
for  fruit  we  also,  incidentally,  have  grateful  shade  and 
beautiful  flowers.  So  the  indirect  influences  of  the 
church  are  inseparable  from  its  direct  work.  These 


The  Institutions  of  Ideals.  307 

institutions  thus  created  by  the  religious  energies  of  be- 
nevolence and  justice  are  too  numerous  to  be  tabulated 
or  described.  Some  of  the  most  significant  forms  must 
be  selected  as  types  of  a  remarkable  and  growing  move- 
ment of  our  age. 

If  we  make  a  survey  of  human  misery  and  trouble,  of 

...  ,  .  Analysis  of 

social   wrongs   and   evils,    of   aspirations   and    growing  social  needs, 
desires,  we  shall  discover  that  the  churches  of  America 
are  already  attempting  to  minister  in  every  direction, 
either  directly  or  by  means   of  agencies   which   they 
control. 

In  the  United  States  the  care  of  defectives  is  chiefly 
intrusted  to  the  state.  In  all  commonwealths  may  be  Defectives, 
found  special  institutions  for  the  insane,  and  usually  for 
the  blind  and  for  deaf  mutes.  With  the  growth  of 
intelligent  charity  all  feeble-minded  children  are  being 
gathered  in  schools  and  farm-homes  by  public  authori- 
ties. Counties  and  towns  provide  asylums  for  aged  and 
imbecile  persons.  The  churches  occasionally  hold 
services  in  these  institutions,  and  the  attitude  of  the 
officers  to  religious  visitors  is  usually  very  friendly. 
For  prisons  chaplains  are  sometimes  employed  at  the 
expense  of  the  public. 

Hospitals,  general  and  special,  are  established  in 
many  ways,  sometimes  by  taxation,  but  often  by  associa-  the  sick. 
tions  which  represent  a  denomination  or  the  people  of 
several  denominations  in  cooperation.  These  associa- 
tions receive  contributions  from  citizens  generally,  and 
where  they  are  not  connected  with  a  particular  sect  but 
little  notice  is  taken  of  the  creed  of  the  governing  body. 
It  is  generally  understood,  however,  that  the  boards  of 
directors  or  trustees  are  chosen  from  the  various  Chris- 
tian societies  in  order  to  secure  funds  and  to  maintain 
an  unsectarian  control. 


305 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Poor  relief. 


Mutual  benefit 
associations. 


The  reform 
societies. 


Modes  of 

organization. 


The  same  thing  is  true  of  other  forms  of  relief.  Day 
nurseries,  benevolent  societies  for  assisting  poor  families 
in  their  homes,  lodging-houses  for  homeless  men,  emer- 
gency relief,  districts  of  associated  charities,  are  fre- 
quently sustained  by  united  efforts  of  many  churches. 

The  fraternal  societies  of  wage-earners  who  accumu- 
late funds  for  assistance  in  case  of  sickness,  accident, 
non-employment,  and  burials,  are  not  usually  connected 
with  any  denomination  among  Protestants.  These 
friendly  societies,  however,  almost  uniformly  have  re- 
ligious rituals,  and  the  members  call  each  other 
"brother,"  a  custom  which  has  become  less  common 
in  the  churches,  especially  of  cities.  The  Roman  Cath- 
olics, however,  have  mutual  benefit  societies  entirely 
composed  of  communicants  of  that  body,  and  those 
societies  are  very  strong  in  numbers  and  income. 
Very  powerful  organizations  for  friendly  help  exist 
among  the  Jews. 

The  associations  for  social  reforms,  mentioned  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  have  no  organic  relation  to  the 
church  except  those  specifically  named  as  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Roman  Catholic,  the  Lutheran,  or 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  And  yet  the  advocates  of 
temperance,  of  social  purity,  of  protection  of  animals 
and  children  from  cruelty,  for  the  suppression  of  the 
lottery  and  gambling,  and  all  unmoral  customs,  seek 
and  find  in  the  churches  an  audience  and  following. 
The  pulpit  and  the  denominational  newspapers  are  the 
most  independent  and  outspoken  advocates  of  many  re- 
forms when  political  motives  make  the  secular  news- 
paper either  dumb  or  antagonistic. 

Perhaps  the  following  are  the  most  common  and 
characteristic  methods  of  organizing  religious  people  for 
social  service  in  the  United  States :  the  local  church, 


The  Institutions  of  Ideals.  309 

the  denominational  mission  society,  the  incorporated  as- 
sociation composed  of  members  of  all  churches,  the 
national  young  people's  societies,  orders,  or  sisterhoods, 
and  coordinating  agencies  of  integration. 

It  has  been  found  by  experience  that  the  work  of  a 
local  church,  planted  in  a  community,  should  minister  to 
the  whole  complex  nature  of  human  beings.  It  seems 
certain  that  the  wonderful  success  of  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  has  had  much  to  do  with  the 
recent  and  remarkable  modifications  of  local  church 
service,  especially  in  the  crowded  parts  of  cities,  where 
home  life  is  so  meager  and  the  conditions  of  existence 
are  so  trying. 

Without  any  sort  of  agreement  or  general  plan, 
simply  in  response  to  local  demands,  many  pastors  and 
churches  have  undertaken  various  forms  of  ministry  to 
their  neighbors  and  constituency.  Within  a  few  years 
the  principal  aims  and  motives  of  these  churches  have 
found  distinct  expression  and  formulation  in  the  mani- 
festo of  the  "Open  and  Institutional  Church  League." 

The  open  and  institutional  church  depends   upon  the  de- 
velopment of  a  certain  spirit,  rather  than  upon  the  aggreea-  Platform  of  the 
„.          f           .   ,           ,.  Open  and  Insti- 
tiun  of  special  appliances  and  methods.  tutional  Church 

Inasmuch  as  Christ  came  not  to  be  ministered  unto,  but  to  Lcasue- 
minister,  the  open  and  institutional  church,  filled  and  moved 
by  his  spirit  of  ministering  love,  seeks  to  become  the  center 
and  source  of  all  beneficent  and  philanthropic  effort,  and  to 
take  the  leading  part  in  every  movement  which  has  for  its  end 
the  alleviation  of  human  suffering,  the  elevation  of  man,  and 
the  betterment  of  the  world. 

Thus  the  open  and  institutional  church  is  known  by  its 
spirit  of  ministration  rather  than  by  any  specific  methods  of 
expressing  that  spirit ;  it  stands  for  open  church  doors  for 
every  day  and  all  the  day,  free  seats,  a  plurality  of  Christian 
workers,  the  personal  activity  of  all  churcli  members,  a  min- 
istry to  all  the  community  through  educational,  reformatory, 


3io 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Methods  of 
Ihe  institu- 
tional church. 


The  ministry 
of  health. 


and  philanthropic  channels,  to  the  end  that  men  may  be  wo$ 
to  Christ  and  his  service,  that  the  church  may  be  brought  back 
to  the  simplicity  and  comprehensiveness  of  its  primitive  life, 
until  it  can  be  said  of  every  community,  "The  Kingdom  of 
Heaven  is  within  you  "  and  "  Christ  is  all  and  in  all." 

It  is  almost  dangerous  to  describe  the  external 
machinery  and  appliances  of  a  modern  institutional 
church,  because  people  are  sorely  tempted  to  copy  the 
form  while  they  miss  the  spirit  and  aim  of  the  move- 
ment. This  is  fatal  to  genuine  life,  and  all  slavish 
imitation  produces  reaction  and  disgust.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  all  really  useful  churches  of  this  type 
have  slowly  grown  into  their  present  forms  ;  that  they 
have  carefully  studied  the  physical,  educational,  moral, 
and  religious  needs  of  the  parish  and  then  sought  the 
most  direct  and  inexpensive  method  of  meeting  the 
demand.  No  two  of  these  churches  are  alike.  There 
is  a  wonderful  variety  in  their  plans.  Let  us  select  a 
few  illustrations  of  devices  and  explain  them  by  the 
social  conditions  surrounding  the  urban  churches.  In 
order  to  make  a  somewhat  systematic  presentation  we 
must  select  and  put  together  features  of  several  well- 
known  societies. 

An  intelligent  and  practical  pastor  finds  his  lot  of 
duty  cast  in  a  neighborhood  where  the  rate  of  mortality, 
especially  among  infants,  is  very  high.  As  he  visits  the 
people  and  becomes  intimate  with  their  life  and  habits 
he  discovers  the  causes.  In  college  he  was  trained  in 
modern  physical  science,  and  his  powers  of  observation 
and  reasoning  are  acute.  Knowledge  burdens  him  with 
a  sense  of  responsibility.  He  dare  not  ascribe  to  "Prov- 
idence" the  disease,  misery,  and  mourning  which  he 
knows  are  due  to  ignorance,  crowding,  bad  cooking, 
decayed  food,  bacteria,  filth,  and  darkness.  A  medieval 


The  Institutions  of  Ideals.  311 

monk,  with  a  purely  classical  culture,  would  not  have 
thought  of  these  things  ;  but  a  modern  pastor  has  at 
least  a  smattering  of  chemistry  and  microscopy,  and  his 
conscience  has  modern  contents. 

If  the  city  did  its  duty,  perhaps,  or  the  state,  these 
evils  would  not  exist.  Meantime  this  knight  of  the 
nineteenth  century  must  fight  alone  against  darkness 
and  disease.  The  babies  are  fed  impure  milk.  He  and 
his  wife  know  about  Pasteurized  milk  and  they  supply 
it.  There  are  no  bathrooms  in  the  houses,  and  the 
stench  of  unwashed  bodies  and  bedding  is  shocking 
to  the  visitors.  What  can  be  done  ?  Wait  for  the  slow 

Methods. 

action  of  a  municipality?  No.  There  is  a  room  in  the 
church  basement  which,  with  a  little  expense,  can  be 
fitted  up  with  spray  baths  for  ten  or  twenty  persons  at  a 
time,  and  the  pennies  paid  will  almost  meet  the  expense. 
The  clerks  and  factory  hands  suffer  from  cramped  posi- 
tions and  confinement.  They  need  a  gymnasium.  They 
cannot  afford  to  go  to  a  swell  club.  It  is  easy  to  set  the 
chairs  aside  in  the  prayer-meeting  room  and  have  dumb- 
bells and  Indian  clubs  ready  for  use.  Boxing  and 
wrestling  do  not  require  much  apparatus,  and  a  room 
can  soon  be  cleared  for  developing  athletes. 

The  boys  are  in  danger  of  physical  and  moral  ruin 
unless  they  have  suitable  physical  drill.  There  is  a 
young  man  who  has  belonged  to  a  military  company, 
knows  the  manual  of  arms,  and  is  pining  for  a  field 
of  usefulness.  He  will  turn  agnostic  in  six  months  if  he 
merely  listens  to  sermons  and  psalms.  Give  him  the 
mission  of  saving  twenty  boys  in  a  brigade  and  he  works 
out  his  own  salvation,  even  without  fear  and  trembling. 

This  pastor  discovers  that  poor  women  in  his  parish 
are  begging  because  young  children  keep  them  all  day 
from  work.  He  has  heard  of  the  creche,  named  origi- 


3I2 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Bethlehem 
er«dle. 


Industrial 
training. 


nally  from  the  Bethlehem  manger  crib,  and  he  asks  some 
of  his  well-to-do  friends  to  rent  a  room,  hire  a  nurse, 
and  provide  care  for  these  infants  whose  mothers  are 
obliged  to  go  out  to  wash  or  weave  during  the  day. 
Thus  the  baby's  life  is  saved,  the  family  is  preserved 
from  pauperism,  and  the  mother  is  taught  the  scientific 
care  of  infants. 

Some  of  the  little  fellows,  between  the  ages  of  three 
and  six  years,  are  proper  subjects  for  a  kindergarten, 
but  this  is  a  luxury  for  rich  folks.  Not  so.  A  wealthy- 
lady  is  glad  to  furnish  a  room.  A  circle  of  King's 
Daughters  in  an  uptown  fashionable  church  will  pay  the 
salary  of  a  teacher  out  of  their  pin-money.  The  thing  is 
done.  The  poor  children  enjoy  the  luxury  of  the  rich. 
Father  Froebel  comes  to  make  them  turn  work  into 
play  and  learning  into  song.  Pianos  are  cheap,  and  the 
young  souls  are  developed  into  musical  critics.  Harsh 
noises  come  to  be  disagreeable  to  them.  They  learn 
that  a  gentle  voice  is  an  excellent  thing.  Weary  fathers 
are  refreshed  and  delighted  in  the  evening  to  hear  the 
simple  sweet  melodies  learned  in  the  children's  garden. 
Christian  teachers  have  cunningly  woven  into  the 
poetry  a  canticle  of  the  glad  tidings,  and  the  midgets 
become  missionaries  to  drinking  fathers.  Purgatory  is 
driven  back  by  song. 

The  girls  do  not  know  how  to  sew  and  darn  and 
mend.  Will  this  pastor  wait  for  an  angel  or  a  school 
board  to  instruct  them  ?  Rather  will  he  bring  an  angel 
from  some  earthly  mansion,  some  young  people's 
society,  to  teach  these  eager  girls  the  useful  arts.  And 
what  does  this  signify  ?  Garments  are  more  tidy,  habits 
of  order  prevail,  the  earnings  of  the  father  are  doubled 
in  purchasing  power.  At  the  same  time  the  girls  learn 
beautiful  songs  ;  they  see  the  gracious  and  refined  man- 


The  Institutions  of  Ideals.  313 


ners  of  the  young  ladies  ;  they  imitate  the  gentle  ways  ; 
they  discover  that  wealth  is  not  heartless,  that  the  good 
God  has  not  forgotten  them. 

Then  come  the  cooking  schools.  They  are  not  a 
luxury,  but  rather  a  necessity.  These  people  are  fresh 
from  Italy  and  do  not  know  how  to  prepare  American 
foods.  There  are  some  from  Ireland,  and  many  Ameri- 
cans who  are  in  a  similar  plight.  In  a  few  years  those 
same  girls  will  respond  to  our  advertisements  for  domes- 
tic help,  for  cooks,  and  they  will  come  asking  the  wages 
of  experts.  Let  us  help  them  in  their  own  neighbor- 
hoods, for  their  own  sake  and  for  ours.  The  institu- 
tional church,  finding  no  provision  for  this  social  want, 
opens  another  room  in  the  basement,  employs  a  teacher, 
and  she  proclaims  a  gospel  of  healthy  diet,  with  all 
other  gospel  which  a  wise  Christian  woman  carries  along 
with  her,  whatever  she  is  doing. 

The  poor  are  like  the  rich — they  will  save  if  it  is  not 

rr.i  i  ,    i  Economic 

too  inconvenient.  The  pastor  sees  boys  shooting  device* 
craps,"  making  themselves  gamblers.  His  daily  walks 
and  talks  reveal  a  thousand  wastes  where  waste  means 
woe.  There  is  no  penny  postal  system  in  this  country 
— more's  the  pity  !  Even  if  we  had  a  postal  savings 
bank  these  people  would  not  form  a  habit  of  going  to  it 
without  tuition.  The  institutional  church  opens  a  penny 
provident  fund.  It  collects  the  pennies  of  the  children. 
Its  visitors  go  from  house  to  house  preaching  the  doc- 
trine of  Benjamin  Franklin's  "Poor  Richard."  New 
habits  of  thrift  are  formed,  and  the  foundations  of  inde- 
pendence are  laid. 

We  may  use  an   English   example   of    what   many 
pastors  could  do  in  America.         In  a  small  town  like  \%$g 
Berkhamsted,  in  Hertfordshire,  a  distributive  union  of 
330  families  already  own,  after  a  few  years'  effort,  a  joint 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


Labor  con- 
ferences. 


Themes  for 
discussion. 


capital  of  ^3,000  ($15,000).  At  the  village  of  Childe 
Okeford,  in  Dorset,  the  Rev.  T.  G.  Beymer  commenced 
in  1883  a  cooperative  village  store.  In  two  months  it 
had  repaid  the  loan  of  initial  capital  of  ^200  ($1,000). 
Debt  has  been  gradually  abolished.  The  stimulating 
principle  of  the  nest-egg  has  been  learned  by  the  poor. 
Wages  are  being  more  wisely  spent.  A  beneficial 
change  is  passing  over  the  cottages.  On  the  continent 
of  Europe  many  similar  examples  could  be  found,  where 
the  pastors  have  set  up  Raiffeisen  banks,  driven  out 
usury,  and  won  back  the  dull,  hopeless,  discouraged 
peasants  to  thrift  and  religion. 

Pastors,  employers,  and  professional  people  cannot 
join  trades  unions,  but  they  might  extend  friendly 
acquaintance  among  wage-workers  by  joining  the 
fraternal  lodges,  cooperative  banks,  and  mutual  benefit 
clubs  to  which  the  working  people  belong.  This  is 
already  done  by  many  sagacious  Christian  leaders. 
Politicians  know  the  value  of  such  connections,  and 
sometimes  use  them  for  selfish  ends. 

There  are  many  troublesome  questions  which  ought 
to  be  discussed  before  religious  people  by  representa- 
tives of  the  trades  unions,  in  order  that  professional  men 
may  realize  the  sufferings  and  the  aspirations  of  the 
unions.  Such  problems  are  the  tenement-house  reform, 
the  sweating  system,  eviction  laws  and  their  harsh  ad- 
ministration, the  housing  of  janitors  in  apartment 
houses,  conciliation  and  arbitration  in  trade  disputes, 
the  treatment  of  children  and  youth  in  factories,  and  the 
wages  of  women.  It  is  often  a  great  relief  to  pent-up 
feelings  of  sorrow  or  of  wrong  if  they  can  find  a  sympa- 
thetic hearing,  even  if  the  hearer  can  do  nothing  but 
listen.  On  the  other  hand,  benevolent  and  honorable 
employers  would  frequently  mitigate  evils  if  brought  to 


The  Institutions  of  Ideals.  315 

iheir  attention.  The  church  parlor  is  a  good  place  for 
such  conferences  ;  but  the  officers  of  the  church  must 
know  how  to  keep  their  tempers  when  the  mouthpieces 
of  the  trades  unions  and  of  socialism  vent  their  epithets 
of  abuse.  We  should  remember  that  this  invective, 
however  coarse,  is  not  altogether  without  justification, 
and  we  must  be  patient  till  the  noisy  torrent  runs  clear. 

Our  open  church  believes  in  a  complete  manhood,  in 
a  full  development  of  faculty.  It  is  not  blind  to  the  sociability, 
craving  for  fellowship.  Its  minister  does  not  stand  in 
the  street  asking  men  to  come  out  of  the  warm  saloon 
and  shiver  with  him  on  .%e  pavement.  He  invites  them 
to  rooms  where  they  wi.  find  a  purer  air,  games,  recrea- 
tions, magic  lantern  shows,  concerts,  "soft  drinks" 
rather  than  hard  cider  and  bad  whisky.  If  they  must 
smoke,  he  has  a  room  where  they  can  go  and  choke  to 
their  hearts'  content.  He  will  chat  with  them  there, 
a  comrade  and  friend.  He  will  make  them  feel  at  home 
and  tell  their  story.  Next  Sunday  they  will  get  back 
their  own  vocabulary  in  a  sermon,  but  it  will  be  trans- 
figured, glorified. 

The  institutional  church  may  find  opportunities  of 
ministering  to  the  hunger  for  knowledge  and  beauty.  It 
has  a  reading-room,  rival  of  the  public  dramshop,  and 
a  good  deal  better.  Not  too  fine,  lest  a  hod  carrier 
with  lime  on  his  shoes  may  not  feel  at  home  as  he  drops 
in  on  his  way  home.  '.  here  are  many  illustrated  papers. 
The  place  is  still.  Courtesy  prevails.  No  policeman  is 
called  in,  because  there  is  a  sense  of  gratitude  and  fair 
play  in  these  rough,  strong  men. 

They  will  listen  to  lectures,  but  the  speaker  must  have 
a  genius  for  illustration  and  humor,  and  he  must  have 
a  stereopticon.  These  men  will  crowd  the  hall  and  fol- 
low you  the  world  over  and  up  among  the  stars,  if  you 


316  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

lead  them  with  pictures.    But  they  cannot  endure  prose. 

f°euestin  They  want  poetry.     Of  plain,  hard  matter-of-fact  they 

have  enough  all  day,  all  the  years.  They  will  hear  of 
religion,  too,  any  night  of  the  week,  if  it  comes  down 
into  life,  and  is  not  separated  from  experience.  All 
shams  and  pretense  they  detect,  abhor,  and  punish  on 
the  spot.  Noble  sentiment  will  be  applauded.  Music 
will  soothe  or  stir  them.  They  can  be  made  to  see  the 
difference  between  good  drawing  and  caricature  in 
painting.  Catch  them  young  and  they  will  learn  to 
render  classic  music.  The  open  church  has  musical 
classes.  It  is  a  schoolhouse  for  those  who  have  no 
other  school.  It  has  a  library  of  choice  books,  if  the 
public  library  is  too  far  away  or  does  not  fully  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  people.  All  things  to  all  men  that 
it  may  by  all  means  save  some — this  is  the  principle  of  a 
divine  pedagogy. 

The  open  church  has  for  its  ideal  daily  services  for 
prayer  and  teaching.  On  Sunday  seats  are  free.  Sup- 

Worsiuyand      port    comes    from    voluntary    contributions,    gifts,    or 

evangelism.  _         ,.,.,,  ,  i 

endowments.  In  this  kind  of  work  rented  pews  are 
empty  pews.  A  noble  business  man  of  Boston  vowed 
when  he  was  young  and  poor  that,  if  he  became  rich, 
he  would  see  to  it  that  the  poor  had  in  at  least  one 
church  as  good  music  as  the  rich.  He  did  become 
wealthy  and  did  not  forget  his  vow.  In  the  institutional 
church  of  which  he  is  a  member  and  a  benefactor  may 
be  heard  some  of  the  best  voices  of  the  city.  Not  all 
such  churches  can  command  equal  income,  but  all  aim 
to  make  the  service  of  worship  splendid,  attractive,  fre^ 
and  sincere. 

The  evangelistic,  missionary  spirit  is  intense  in  these 
churches.  It  is  not  "secularized"  by  the  numerous 
forms  of  ministry.  On  the  contrary,  these  agencies 


The  Institutions  of  Ideals.  317 

tend  to  the  supreme  end  of  the  church,  all  contribute  to 
the  highest  good. 

But  the  open  church  is  more  than  an  attraction,  it  is 
a  mission.  It  goes  out  into  the  highways  and  byways 
of  the  city,  and  carries  its  message  to  the  indifferent 
and  the  hostile.  It  multiplies  pastors  and  visitors.  Its 
corps  of  trained  nurses  or  deaconesses  has  free  access  to 
humble  rooms  when  sickness  and  sorrow  prepare  the 
heart  for  the  heavenly  call.  Happily  we  are  now  intro- 
ducing into  America  that  method  of  woman's  ministry 
which  Pastor  Fliedner  made  so  famous  at  Kaiserswerth 
in  the  German  Fatherland.  In  connection  with  the 
institutional  church  movement  these  trained  nurses  are 
having  already  an  unlimited  field  of  usefulness. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  characteristic  social  institu- 
tions of  the  American  church  is  the  Young  Men's  TH«Y.M.  c.  A. 
Christian  Association.  It  is  founded  on  a  distinct  and 
articulate  recognition  of  the  fact  that  man  is  a  complex 
being,  having  many  interdependent  wants,  and  the  fact 
that  man  is  an  organic  unity.  Every  member  of  the 
body  is  connected  by  a  muscular  and  nervous  and  bony 
system  with  every  other  member.  Body  and  intellect 
act  and  react  on  each  other.  Morality  and  religion  are 
influenced  by  the  studies,  the  work,  the  recreations  of 
men,  and  in  turn  react  on  all  that  one  does  and  thinks 
and  wills.  It  is  a  clear  vision  of  this  deep  law  of  the 
organic  unity  of  the  individual  which  created  the 
method  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  and 
the  idea  has  become  more  clear  and  fixed  with  experi- 
ence. 

If  we  enter  the  building  of  a  completely  developed 
Y.  M.  C.  A.,  where  the  central  principles  are  fully  ex-  ! 
pressed,  we  shall  find  three  fairly  distinct  lines  of  work — 
the  gymnasium  and  bath  for  the  body,  the  night  classes 


318  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

for  the  intellectual  life,  the  Bible  classes  and  evangelistic 
services  for  the  religious  nature. 

The  relation  of  these  societies  to  the  churches  is  very 
intimate.  The  voting  members  must  be  also  members 
of  some  ' '  evangelical ' '  church,  and  the  constitution  re- 
quires that  the  officers  shall  represent  the  ' '  evangelical ' ' 
creeds.  Associate  members,  who  need  not  be  church 
members,  have  all  privileges  except  voting  and  control. 

The  ' '  liberal ' '  churches,  having  strong  objections  to 
these  restrictions,  have  established  similar  associations 
of  their  own  in  some  of  the  cities,  and  in  connection 
with  particular  churches  have  developed  ' '  institutional ' ' 
agencies  which  perform  the  same  functions  as  those  just 
described. 

Recognizing  the  beneficial  influence  of  the  associa- 

ThcY.  W.C.A.  tions  for  young  men,  a  strong  effort  has  been  made  to 

furnish   corresponding  advantages   for   young  women. 

The  essential  features  of  these  institutions  have  been 

indicated  in  a  previous  chapter  (Chapter  III.). 

The  Salvation  Army  was  established  in  1861  by 
William  Booth,  and  set  up  its  banners  in  America  in 

The  Salvation  _  ...  .,  , 

Army  and  the      1879.     It  presents,  like  all  popular  movements,  many 

American  .          ,  ...  ..  ,      ,  ,  ,     .  .. 

Volunteers.  points  for  criticism.  Artists  declare  that  their  music  is 
intolerable  ;  sermonizers  insist  that  their  exhortations 
violate  the  canons  of  sacred  rhetoric ;  devotees  of 
fashion  are  confident  that  the  lassies  show  bad  taste  in 
bonnets  ;  philosophers  and  theologians  consider  their 
teaching  beneath  contempt ;  people  who  boast  of  their 
humility  dislike  such  a  parade  of  religion  ;  reverent 
worshipers  are  shocked  at  their  parodies  of  sacred 
song  and  their  rude  familiarity  with  Deity;  patriotism 
cries  out  against  the  despotic  military  policy  which 
holds  the  officers  in  the  grip  of  austere  discipline — and 
yet  the  army  moves  on. 


The  Institutions  of  Ideals.  319 

The  unfortunate  division  of  1896  reminds  one  of  the 
days  when  sects  arose  over  doctrines  or  rules,  and  yet 
the  two  bodies  move  forward  to  the  same  end  by  some- 
what different  methods. 

No  one  can  foretell  the  issue  ;  no  mortal  can  predict 
the  consequences  of  their  sensational  methods.  But 
this  much  is  certain  :  the  Salvation  Army  has  compelled 
the  members  of  the  churches  to  consider  the  problems 
of  the  "submerged  twentieth,"  to  see  that  the  con- 
ventional ways  and  places  are  not  adequate ;  that 
multitudes  are  alienated  from  the  church  who  might  be 
helped  ;  that  they  who  touch  the  soul  must  minister  to 
the  body,  as  Jesus  did  ;  that  while  many  able  ministers 
preach  on  Sunday  evenings  to  almost  empty  houses, 
they  might,  by  going  to  halls  and  theaters,  speak  to 
thousands.  No  man  has  a  right  to  criticise  these  rude 
workmen  so  long  as  he  makes  no  attempt  in  the  same 
field. 

In  our  cities  there  are  men  whose  clothing,  habits, 
speech,    culture,    and   history  exclude  them   from   the  Evangelism 
regular  churches.     The  ' '  rescue  mission  ' '   has  a  field  wa'ndfrlnl  and 
for  itself,  but  the  more  varied  ' '  institutional  church ' ' 
is  far  more  hopeful.     Experience  soon  shows  us  that  a 
man  may  be  sincerely  ' '  converted  ' '  and  yet  sink  back 
into  bad  habits  unless  he  is  helped  to  work  and  higher 
companionship. 

The  specialized  forms  of  ministry  demand  specialized 
training  schools.     The  Lutherans  and   Catholics  have  Training  o» 
led  the  way  in  establishing  schools  for  training  deacon-  rctivietiesfor 
esses  and  sisters  for  the  care  of  the  sick.     But  other 
denominations  are  rapidly  following  their  example.    The 
Y.  M.  C.  A.   has  established  classes  for  training  the 
"secretaries"  who  are  charged  with  the  multifarious 
duties  of    superintending  the  work   for    young  men. 


320 


The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 


The  King's 
Daughters 
and  Sons. 


"In  His 
Name. 


Various  institutes  and  training  schools  have  been 
founded  for  discovering  and  developing  the  gifts  of 
persons  who  will  become  assistants  of  pastors,  evan- 
gelists, leaders  of  rescue  missions,  colporteurs,  and 
Sunday-school  superintendents. 

Among  unsectarian  organizations  few  have  had  a 
more  rapid  growth  or  are  doing  a  nobler  work  than  the 
International  Order  of  the  King's  Daughters  and  Sons. 
Started  eleven  years  ago  by  ten  women,  in  New  York 
City,  it  has  increased  until  its  members  are  found  all 
over  the  world.  In  1891  "International"  was  legally 
added  to  its  title.  Its  purposes  are  ' '  to  develop 
spiritual  life  and  to  stimulate  Christian  activities,"  and 
all  who  accept  these  aims  and  purposes,  and  who  ' '  hold 
themselves  responsible  to  the  King,  our  Lord  and 
Savior  Jesus  Christ,"  are  welcome  to  its  membership. 

As  its  name  indicates,  the  order  accepts  and  teaches 
the  fatherhood  of  God  and  the  brotherhood  of  man.  Its 
first  work  is  to  strive  to  win  the  individual  heart  for 
Christ,  so  that  the  individual  life  may  be  governed  and 
guided  by  his  spirit.  "Within  its  ranks  are  found  not 
only  the  little  child  and  the  wayworn  pilgrim,  but  some 
of  the  noblest  men  and  women  who,  in  the  church,  the 
state,  the  university,  and  the  business  world,  to-day  are 
shaping  the  policy  and  guiding  the  affairs  of  the 
nation."  The  King's  Daughters  and  Sons,  for  the 
love  of  Christ,  and  "In  His  Name,"  are  ministering  to 
the  souls  and  bodies  of  men  ;  "building  churches ;  pay- 
ing mortgages  on  those  already  built ;  educating  the 
young  men  and  women  for  the  ministry  and  for  the 
foreign  mission  field ;  taking  care  of  orphans  and 
widows,  of  the  old  and  the  sick  ;  building  hospitals  and 
infirmaries  ;  sending  trained  nurses  to  the  homes  of  the 
poor  ;  and  following  the  sailors  with  evidences  of  loving 


TTte  Institutions  of  Ideals.  321 

care."  Nearly  400,000  have  taken  the  silver  cross  as 
the  outward  symbol  of  their  pledge  of  love  and  service, 
and  more  than  one  thousand  different  lines  of  work 
upon  which  they  have  entered  are  recorded  at  the  head- 
quarters of  the  order. 

The  remarkable  growth  of  the  church  societies  of 
young  people,  under  the  inspiration  of  the  Young 
People's  Society  of  Christian  Endeavor,  is  a  social  factor 
of  the  first  order.  Its  ministry  to  the  religious  life  is  its 
chief  glory  ;  but  religion  means  to  these  hosts  of  edu- 
cated youth  a  living  out  of  the  Golden  Rule.  Hence 
we  see  that  those  organizations  are  pushing  the  work  of 
education,  Sunday-schools,  rational  entertainments,  in- 
dustrial classes,  temperance  reforms,  defense  of  the  day 
of  rest,  political  purity,  and  all  the  movements  for 
social  betterment. 

If  one  desires  to  see  how  general  and  real  the  devo- 
tion to  religious  life  is  in  the  United  States  he  must 
study  the  Sunday-school.  According  to  statistics  pub- 
lished in  1896  we  had  142,089  schools,  1,476,369  teach- 
ers, 11,556,806  pupils,  and  there  had  been  a  gain  in 
three  years  of  1,337,967  in  the  grand  total.  In  Canada 
there  were  55,050  teachers  and  467,292  pupils.  This 
institution  is  absolutely  voluntary,  and,  with  very  few 
exceptions,  all  these  teachers  serve  without  pay.  In  no 
country  in  the  world  is  the  Sunday-school  so  well 
equipped  and  so  enthusiastically  supported  as  in 
America.  The  general  organization  of  this  movement 
includes  a  committee  in  each  township,  a  county  com- 
mittee, a  state  convention,  a  national  and  international 
convention,  and,  to  crown  all,  a  world's  Sunday-school 
convention.  Who  can  measure  the  social  importance 
of  this  vast  army  of  students  of  righteousness,  banded 
together  by  common  beliefs,  hopes,  and  affections  ? 


322  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

It  has  long  been  felt  that  the  church  ought  to  return 
iheefamnry h  and  moral  inspiration  to  the  institution  out  of  which  all 
other  institutions  grow— the  family.  Dr.  Dike  has 
made  this  idea  central  in  the  league  of  which  he  is 
secretary.  About  1881  a  movement  was  promoted  by 
Dr.  W.  A.  Duncan  which  deserves  the  attention  of  all 
philanthropists — "  The  Home  Department  of  the  Sunday- 
school."  Many  persons  are  not  church-goers,  the  in- 
valid, the  aged,  those  too  poor  to  provide  suitable  cloth- 
ing, and  those  who  are  indifferent.  Such  persons  are 
visited  by  an  agent  of  the  church  school  and  invited  to 
sign  a  card  which  pledges  them  to  study  the  lesson  at 
home,  unless  prevented  by  some  good  cause.  They  are 
furnished  with  lesson  helps  and  enrolled  as  members. 
Traveling  men  in  this  way  keep  up  their  connection 
with  the  school  while  on  their  journeys.  A  family  in 
the  far  West,  on  prairie  or  deep  in  the  forest,  is  a  living 
member  of  the  old  church  in  Connecticut.  A  domestic 
servant  saw  boys  stealing  fruit  in  a  garden,  invited  them 
to  her  kitchen,  and  formed  them  into  a  class.  Thus  the 
two  most  ancient  institutions  of  society,  family  and  sanc- 
tuary, are  closely  united  and  are  made  reciprocally  help- 
ful. The  home  department  is  full  of  promise  of  further 
development  of  this  prolific  idea  that  the  family  is 
central  in  all  educational  work. 

The  disposition  to  subordinate  self  to  social  good, 
Coordinating  to  make  partisan  and  denominational  interests  serve 
human  welfare,  has  created  agencies  of  coordination  and 
cooperation.  In  many  communities  there  are  local 
societies,  ministers'  meetings,  civic  federations,  Chris- 
tian citizenship  leagues  and  others  which  act  in  various 
ways  as  organs  for  the  religious  and  reforming  convic- 
tions which  are  held  in  common. 

Denominational   societies   on   a   voluntary   basis   are 


The  Institutions  of  Ideals.  323 

formed  for  the  prosecution  of  various  kinds  of  missions 
and  church  extensions,  as  city  mission  societies,  state 
conventions,  national  missionary  societies,  and  publica- 
tion houses.  Each  denomination  provides  for  the  en- 
largement of  its  Sunday-school  work  in  new  places, 
largely  in  connection  with  the  organs  of  publication. 
The  Evangelical  Alliance  has  no  legislative  powers 
and  seeks  no  control  over  the  churches.  Its  mission  is  National  union 

....  ...          societies. 

to  promote  unity  of  feeling,  thought,  and  action  in  that 
large  field  where  differences  of  creed  have  no  place.  Its 
discussions,  to  which  men  of  all  churches  have  con- 
tributed, have  helped  to  concentrate  attention  upon 
"practical  Christianity,"  to  show  the  church  at  large 
where  its  ministry  was  most  needed,  to  organize  the  best 
thinking  upon  those  problems,  and  so  to  promote  econ- 
omy of  force  and  secure  liberality  of  action  and  generos- 
ity of  sacrifice.  There  seems  to  be  a  place  for  it  like 
that  of  the  central  committee  of  the  inner  mission  in  the 
German  state  church.  The  time  is  approaching  when 
at  least  all  Protestants  will  unite  in  a  systematic  way  to 
consolidate  and  direct  their  philanthropic  endeavors. 
Unity  of  creed  is  out  of  the  question,  but  real  spiritual 
and  practical  union  is  already  locally  realized  in  a  hun- 
dred ways.  The  Evangelical  Alliance  appears  to  be  the 
best  organization  for  advancing  this  desirable  unification 
of  all  the  church  forces  which  make  for  charity  and 
righteousness. 

The  Convention  of  Christian  Workers  is  composed 

.  .    n         .  i         •      •  i    •  Convention 

chiefly  of  persons  who  are  deeply  interested  in  rescue  of  Christian 

......  ,      Workers. 

mission  work  in  this  country.  Its  members  are  in  touch 
with  the  vagrant  and  unsteady  classes  of  our  cities,  and 
they  have  offered  many  examples  of  heroic  sacrifice. 

The  American  Sunday-school  Union  was  organized  in 
1824.  Some  conception  of  its  work  may  be  formed  from 


324 


Social  Spirit  in  America. 


open  church 

League. 


Multiplication 

of  organs. 


the  fact  that  in  three  years  (1884-87)  this  old  society 
brought  185,034  children  into  4,947  new  Sunday- 
schools  ;  aided  4,825  other  schools  ;  visited  92,584 
families  ;  supplied  45,019  destitute  persons  with  the 
Scriptures  ;  and  held  27,247  religious  meetings. 

The  Open  and  Institutional  Church  League,  already 
mentioned,  has  for  its  object  a  band  of  union  between 
churches  of  this  type  and  the  extension  of  their 
principles. 

It  is  impossible  to  name  in  this  place  all  the  institu- 
tions which  the  churches  have,  directly  or  indirectly, 
created  for  the  amelioration  of  human  life,  for  aiding  to 
make  man's  life  complete  and  perfect  in  body,  mind, 
and  spirit,  to  bring  all  men  into  fraternal  and  equitable 
relations.  What  has  been  mentioned  is  but  an  im- 
perfect suggestion  and  illustration  of  the  luxuriant  and 
generous  outgrowth  of  the  social  spirit  at  work  in  the 
churches.  It  is  not  claimed  that  these  societies  are 
doing  their  whole  duty.  They  fall  far  short  of  it.  But 
the  springs  of  vitality  are  in  them  ;  they  produce  foliage 
and  fruit  ;  and  they  give  promise  of  better  things. 

CONCLUSION. 

Many  have  complained  that  the  societies  auxiliary  to 
the  church  are  too  numerous  ;  that  too  much  time, 
energy,  and  money  are  expended  upon  them  in  propor- 

.  \,  ,  . 

tion  to  the  work  accomplished  ;  that  machinery  con- 
sumes the  power  without  corresponding  product  ;  and 
that  the  church  itself  is  lost  out  of  sight.  There  is 
some  ground  for  this  criticism,  and  it  suggests  an  ex- 
planation and  a  measure  of  relief. 

The  explanation  of  these  societies  lies  chiefly  in  the 
following  facts  :  that  these  improvements  always  begin 
with  a  devoted,  self-sacrificing,  and  far-seeing  minority 


The  Institutions  of  Ideals.  325 

which  dares  not  wait  for  the  majority  before  it  launches 
its  enterprise.  Why  did  the  anti-slavery  societies 
organize  outside  the  churches?  Because  the  churches 
persecuted  or  misunderstood  them,  and  clothed  them  in  Pioneers  oi 

progress. 

wet  blankets.  Why  did  the  temperance  societies 
organize  separately  ?  Because  the  churches  could  not 
be  brought  to  support  the  movement,  and  because  the 
combined  membership  of  all  workers  of  all  denomina- 
tions was  necessary  to  success.  Why  did  the  foreign 
and  home  missionary  societies  develop  independently  of 
ecclesiastical  machinery  ?  Because,  in  some  denomina- 
tions at  least,  only  a  minority  was  favorable  to  missions, 
and  the  great  majority  was  indifferent  or  hostile.  In 
the  same  way  the  Sunday-school  movement  has  been 
compelled  to  erect  its  own  machinery  and  pursue  its 
own  path.  The  majority  must  be  won  to  a  new  cause 
by  examples  of  success  more  than  by  verbal  arguments. 
Nearly  all  our  charitable  institutions  depend  on  a  com- 
paratively small  minority  of  members  for  support. 
There  never  was  an  age  when  there  was  not  a  social 
necessity  for  the  organization  of  societies  auxiliary  to 
the  church,  friendly  to  its  interests  and  aims,  yet  some- 
what self-supporting  and  self-governing.  When  the 
prophetic  minority  has  demonstrated  the  value  of  its 
work  the  church  as  a  body  may  safely  adopt  it  as  its 
own.  This  seems  to  be  the  most  practical  method  of 
forward  movements. 

The  church  is  not  and  cannot  be  exempt  from  the 
universal  laws  of  organic  and  social  evolution.  Prog- 
ress  in  life  implies  specialization  and  multiplication  of 
organs  and  functions.  The  egg  of  a  bird  is  at  first  a 
homogeneous  mass  and  no  particular  organ  is  dis- 
coverable. During  the  process  of  brooding  the  various 
parts  of  the  bird  manifest  themselves  in  special  forms, 


326  The  Social  Spirit  in  America. 

and  when  the  shell  is  broken  the  creature  is  equipped 

for  its   various   functions,    marvelously  complex.     The 

low  forms  of  life,  as  the  jelly  fish,  have  no  particular 

Higheriife         hands  or  eyes,   while  the  highest  forms  are  endlessly 

multiplies  '  ... 

machinery.  diversified.  Savage  society  is  simple,  while  civilized 
society  is  complicated.  The  primitive  church  was  a 
single  cell,  while  the  modern  church  has  a  thousand 
modes  of  manifesting  its  increasing  life.  ' '  God  fulfils 
himself  in  many  ways."  We  can  no  more  force  the 
church  back  into  its  pioneer  form  than  we  can  force  a 
developed  oak  back  into  the  narrow  husk  and  unde- 
veloped germ  of  the  acorn.  Life  branches  endlessly  ; 
death  carries  us  back  to  the  original  monotony  of  dust. 
Sacred  institutions  if  studied  in  the  light  of  sociology 
will  be  seen  to  conform  to  the  divine  laws  of  develop- 
ment. The  multiplication  of  agencies  corresponds  to 
the  wealth  of  internal  gifts  and  graces  and  to  the  multi- 
form demands  of  a  complex  and  advanced  social 
environment.  This  variety  should  not  frighten  or 
annoy  us,  for  it  is  a  proof  of  abundant  vitality. 

The  measure  of  relief  grows  out  of  the  social  situa- 
Economy  tion.     Specialization  must  be  accompanied  by  integra- 

organflkuon?r  tion.  As  far  as  the  local  church  or  the  denomination 
comes  to  approve  a  measure,  after  the  experimental 
stage  is  passed,  it  can  provide  for  its  regulation.  Take 
an  example.  The  local  church  in  a  certain  large  town 
agrees  by  vote  of  its  members  or  authorized  officers 
that  it  should  favor  and  support  the  following  objects  : 
foreign,  home,  state,  and  city  missions  ;  the  religious 
education  of  the  children  and  youth  by  appropriate 
graded  methods ;  ten  different  forms  of  charity  to  the 
dependent  poor  ;  two  forms  of  work  for  criminals  ;  the 
temperance,  social  purity,  and  rest  day  reforms ; 
municipal  and  electoral  reform.  This  church  appoints 


The  Institutions  of  Ideals.  327 

a  committee  for  each  of  these  interests  ;  requires  them 
to  study  a  particular  social  work,  to  promote,  to  raise 
money  for  it,  to  secure  assistants  in  its  personal  work, 
and  to  report  all  to  the  church.  This  would  mean  Regulation, 
integration  and  regulation.  It  would  not  take  the 
place  of  experimental  efforts  of  the  pioneers  and  path- 
finders, and  it  would  not  suppress  adventurous  souls. 
In  some  such  way  the  most  worthy  causes  would  re- 
ceive official  recognition  and  the  wild  schemes  of  eccen- 
tric sentimentalists  who  "mistake  activity  for  useful- 
ness ' '  would  be  obliged  to  give  good  reasons  for  their 
claims.  By  cooperation  with  the  Society  for  Organizing 
Charities,  each  church  would  come  into  an  arrangement 
for  the  whole  community.  The  ideal  will  be  reached 
only  when  all  Christians  regard  the  community  as  a 
single  parish,  with  one  united  plan  of  service.  But  this 
ideal  can  be  realized  only  by  tentative  and  gradual  ap- 
proach. We  are  under  the  most  solemn  obligations  to 
work  in  this  direction.  We  should  seek  to  be  one 
' '  that  the  world  may  believe. ' '  We  must  practice  the 
divine  economy  even  in  working  miracles:  "Gather 
up  the  fragments,  that  nothing  be  lost." 

But  economy  is  not  synonymous  with  niggardliness. 
The  Great  Giver  has  enriched  the  people  of  the  United 
States  beyond  all  other  nations  of  the  earth.  Our 
material  and  mechanical  resources,  our  mercantile  and 
agricultural  wealth,  surpass  the  fables  of  fairyland. 
We  are  called  upon  to  develop  our  social  institutions, 
to  serve  therewith  our  Maker  and  our  fellowmen ;  to  ask"  of  u*. 
make  them  effective  instruments  of  the  perfection  of 
our  citizens  ;  to  offer  them  as  a  worthy  contribution  to 
the  world-wide  movement  of  human  progress  whose 
ideal  and  consummation  is  in  that  holy  and  happy 
society  which  Jesus  called  "The  Kingdom  of  God." 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX. 

NOTES   ON   THE    CHAPTERS. 

THE  object  of  these  notes  is  to  give  brief  hints  for 
those  who  desire  to  follow  the  special  subject  of  the 
chapter  with  further  reading  and  investigation.  A  few 
titles  of  books  and  articles  are  given  for  reading,  and 
these  will  frequently  guide  to  full  bibliographies,  and 
will  give  the  addresses  of  institutions. 

A  select  list  of  typical  institutions  is  added  for  those 
who  wish  to  visit  them  or  to  secure  their  reports.  It 
ought  to  be  remembered  that  the  people  who  are  at  work 
in  these  institutions  are  busy  and  often  weary  ;  and  no 
one  should  take  their  time  or  energy  without  serious 
reason.  It  is  a  shame  and  a  sin  to  disturb  and  tax 
philanthropic  workers  in  order  to  gratify  an  idle  curi- 
osity, the  caprice  of  a  mere  sightseer. 


CHAPTER  I. — INTRODUCTION. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

A.   W.  Small  and  G.   E.   Vincent :  An  Introduction  to 

the  Study  of  Society. 

Arthur  Fairbanks  :  Introduction  to  Sociology. 
J.  S.  Mackenzie  :  An  Introduction  to  Social  Philosophy. 

Second  edition. 

F.  H.  Giddings  :   The  Principles  of  Sociology. 
C.  D.  Wright:  Practical  Sociology. 

331 


332  Appendix. 

CHAPTER  II. — HOME-MAKING  AS  A  SOCIAL  ART. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

C.  F.  and  C.  F.  B.  Thwing  :   The  Family. 
Helen  Campbell  :  Household  Economics. 
Lucy  Maynard  Salmon  :  Domestic  Service. 
R.  A.  Woods  and  others  :   The  Poor  in  Great  Cities. 
Marion    Talbot    and    Ellen    S.    Richards :    Household 
Sanitation. 

The  Le  Play  Method  of  Social  Observation,  translated 
by  C.  A.  Ellwood,  in  American  Journal  of  Soci- 
ologyr,  March,  1897. 

Hull  House  Maps  and  Papers,  by  Residents  of  Hull 
House. 

CHAPTER  III. — FRIENDLY  CIRCLES  OF  WOMEN 
WAGE-EARNERS. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

C.  D.  Wright :  The  Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United 
States  (Chap.  XVI.). 

J.  A.  Hobson  :  Evolution  of  Modern  Capitalism. 

Maude  Stanley  :   Chibsfor  Working  Girls. 

Helen  Campbell  :  Prisoners  of  Poverty ;  Women  Wage- 
Earners. 

Anna  Nathan  Meyer  :    Woman's  Work  in  America. 

Working  Women  in  Large  Cities,  Department  of 
Labor  Report,  1889. 

Reports  of  State  Factory  Inspectors  and  Bureaus  of 
Labor. 

Reports  of  Working  Women' s  Society,  New  York. 

The  Consumers'  League,  New  York  City,  Mrs  Jose- 
phine Shaw  Lowell,  President. 


Appendix.  333 

/• 

INSTITUTIONS. 

In  all  cities  may  be  found  clubs  for  women  and  girls 
in  connection  with  settlements,  missions,  institutional 
churches,  kindergartens,  and  the  Y.  W.  C.  A. 

CHAPTER  IV. — BETTER   HOUSES   FOR   THE    PEOPLE. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

E.  R.  L.  Gould  :    The  Housing  of  the  Working  People; 

Eighth    Special   Report  of  the    Commissioner   of 

Labor,  Washington,  1895. 
Review  of  Reviews,  December,  1896,  p.  693. 

INSTITUTIONS. 

City  and  Suburban  Homes  Co.,    New  York  City,   E. 

R.  L.  Gould,  President. 
Improved  Dwellings  Co.,  of  Brooklyn. 
Boston  Cooperative  Building  Co. 
Local  Building  and  Loan  Associations  in  all  parts  of  the 

United  States. 

CHAPTER  V. — PUBLIC  HEALTH. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

G.    E.    Waring  :    Sanitary   Drainage  of  Houses    and 

Towns,  and  other  works. 
L.  C.  Parkes  :  Hygiene  of  Public  Health. 
J.  F.  J.  Sykes  :  Public  Health  Problems. 
W.   H.   Tolman  :  Report  on   Public  Baths  and  Public 

Comfort  Stations. 

CHAPTER  VI. — GOOD  ROADS  AND  COMMUNICATION. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
Roy  Stone  :  New  Roads  and  Road  I^aws. 


334  Appendix. 

Publications  of  League  of  American  Wheelmen. 
Bulletins  of  Wisconsin  Farmers'  Institutes,  1896. 
Year  Book  of  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
1894,  pp.  501,  513. 

CHAPTER  VII. — THE  SOCIALIZED  CITIZEN. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

H.    Spencer  :  Principles  of  Sociology,    Vol.    III.,    Part 

VIII. 

' '  A  Free  Lance ' ' :   Toward  Utopia. 
R.  Grant  :    The  Art  of  Living. 
E.  Kelley  :  Evolution  and  Effort. 

CHAPTER  VIII. — WHAT  GOOD  EMPLOYERS  ARE 
DOING. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

D.  Pidgeon  :  Old  World  Questions  and  New  World 
Answers. 

N.  P.  Gilman :  Profit  Sharing ;  Socialism  and  the 
American  Spirit;  A  Dividend  to  Labor. 

Paul  Monroe  :  "An  American  System  of  Labor  Pen- 
sions and  Insurance,"  in  American  Journal  of  So- 
ciology, January,  1897. 

O.  D.  Ashley:  "Railways  and  Their  Employees," 
The  Railway  Age,  Chicago. 

W.  Gladden  :    Working  People  and  Their  Employers. 

CHAPTER  IX. — ORGANIZATIONS  OF  WAGE-EARNERS. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

R.  T.  Ely  :    The  Labor  Movement  in  America. 
A.  T.  Hadley  :  Economics. 


Appendix.  335 

F.   J.   Stimson  :  Handbook  of  the  Labor  Laws  of  the 

United  States. 

H.  Myrick  :  How  to  Cooperate. 
H.  W.  Wolff  :  People's  Banks. 
E.  B.  Andrews :  The  Last  Quarter  Century  in  the 

United  States. 
Beatrice  Potter :    The  Cooperative  Movement  in  Great 

Britain. 

Articles  on  "  Fraternal  Insurance,"  Johnson' s  Universal 
Cyclopedia.  Edition  1895. 

Bulletins  of  Labor,  No.  6. 

Ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  United  States  Commis- 
sioner of  Labor,  on  the  Building  and  Loan  Associa- 
tions of  the  United  States. 

Reports  of  Provident  Loan  Associations  in  Boston  and 
New  York. 

CHAPTER  X. — ECONOMIC  COOPERATION  OF  THE 

COMMUNITY. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

R.  T.  Ely  :  Socialism  and  Social  Reform. 
A.  Shaw  :  Municipal  Government  in  Continental  Europe; 
Municipal  Government  in  Great  Britain. 

CHAPTER  XI. — POLITICAL  REFORMS. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

J.  Fiske  :   Civil  Government. 

W.  Wilson  :    The  State. 

W.  H.  Tolman  :  Municipal  Reform  Movements. 

J.  R.  Commons  :  Proportional  Representation. 

National  Conference  for  Good  City  Government.  (Re- 
port for  1894  has  bibliography.) 


336  Appendix. 

Publications  of  National  Civil  Service  Reform  League. 
Reports  of  Civil  Service  Commissioners. 

INSTITUTIONS. 

National  Civil  Service  Reform  League,  National  Mu- 
nicipal League. 

American  Proportional  Representation  League,  Stough- 
ton  Cooley,  Chicago,  Secretary. 

Civic  Federation,  of  Chicago,  and  many  similar  local 
societies. 

CHAPTER  XII. — THE  SOCIAL  SPIRIT  IN  THE  STATE 
SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

G.  S.  Hall :  Bibliography  of  Education. 
C.  H.  Ham  and  C.  M.  Woodward  :    Works  on  Manual 
Training. 

Reports  of  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education, 
Washington  (very  valuable). 

INSTITUTIONS. 

Small  parties  of  citizens  may  visit  public  schools  with 
advantage  if  they  are  prepared  by  reading  and  experi- 
ence, and  if  they  are  accompanied  by  a  competent 
teacher  or  superintendent. 

Manual  training  schools  in  Philadelphia,  Cleveland, 
Toledo,  Chicago,  and  other  cities. 

CHAPTER  XIII. — VOLUNTARY  ORGANIZATION  OF 

EDUCATION. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Miss  Jane  Addams  and  others  :  Philanthropy  and  Social 
Progress. 


Appendix.  33; 

J.  H.  Vincent :    The  Chautauqua  Movement. 

Mrs.  F.  H.  Montgomery:  Bibliography  of  Settlements 
(4th  ed.) 

Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education, 
1894-5,  on  Chautauqua,  article  by  H.  B.  Adams. 

National  Conference  of  Charities  and  Correction,  1896 
(Social  settlements). 

INSTITUTIONS. 

Chautauqua  :  Office  of  Bishop  John  H.  Vincent, 
Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Vacation  Schools  :  Office,  Room  105  E.  Twenty- 
second  Street,  New  York  ;  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
Chicago. 

Social  settlements  are  found  in  all  the  large  cities. 

National  Household  Economic  Association,  Dr.  Mary 

E.  Green,  Charlotte,  Mich.,  President. 

CHAPTER  XIV. — SOCIALIZED  BEAUTY  AND 
RECREATIONS. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
N.  H.  Eggleston  :  Home  and  Its  Surroundings. 

Atlantic   Monthly,    1896-7,   articles   by  Miss  Mary  C. 

Robins. 
Leaflets  published  by  the  Civic  Club,  Philadelphia. 

CHAPTER  XV. — CHARITY  AND  CORRECTION. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

A.  G.  Warner  :  American  Charities. 

F.  H.  Wines  :  Punishment  and  Reformation. 

C.   R.   Henderson  :  Dependents,  Defectives,  and  Delin- 
quents. 
W.  D.  Morrison  :  Juvenile  Offenders. 


338  Appendix. 

Reports  of  National  Conference  of  Charities  and  Correc- 
tion, G.  H.  Ellis,  Boston. 

INSTITUTIONS. 

In  each  city  is  published  a  list  of  all  charitable  insti- 
tutions, in  the  directory  or  in  a  special  volume. 

CHAPTER  XVI. — THE  SOCIAL  SPIRIT  IN  CONFLICT 
WITH  ANTI-SOCIAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

F.  H.  Wines  and  J.  Koren  :  The  Liquor  Problem,  1897. 
H.  W.  Blair  :    The  Temperance  Movement,  1888. 
W.    F.    Crafts :    Practical   Christian   Sociology  (many 
interesting  notes  and  references). 

Temperance  :   Cyclopedia  of  Temperance. 

Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education,  1894.-$,  on  Sci- 
entific Temperance  Instruction  in  the  Public  Schools, 
p.  1829. 

Divorce  Reform :  Reports  of  National  League  for  the 
Protection  of  the  Family. 

Report  of  Commissioner  of  Labor,  1889,  on  Marriage 
and  Divorce. 

Society  for  the  Suppression  of  Vice  (Anthony  Corn- 
stock);  the  Times  Building,  New  York. 

Social  Purity  :  Publications  of  White  Cross  League  and 
W.  C.  T.  U. 

The  American  Purity  Alliance. 

CHAPTER  XVII.— THE  INSTITUTIONS  OF  IDEALS. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

B.  G.  W.  Mead  :  Modern  Methods  of  Church  Work, 
1897. 


Appendix.  339 

J.  Strong  :   The  New  Era. 

W.  Gladden  :  Ruling  Ideas  of  t/ie  Present  Age. 

J.  R.  Commons  :  Social  Reform  and  the  Church. 

W.  DeWitt  Hyde  :  Outlines  of  Social  Theology. 

G.  Hodges  :  Faith  and  Social  Service. 

Lyman  Abbott  :   Christianity  and  Social  Problems. 

H.  K.  Carroll :  Religious  Forces  in  the  United  States. 

D.  Dorchester:     Christianity    in    the    United  States. 
Edition  1895. 

H.  S.  Ninde  and  others  :  Young  Men' s  Christian  Asso- 
ciation, A  Handbook. 

E.  W.  Donald  :   The  Expansion  of  Religion. 

Christianity  Practically  Applied ;  being  reports  of  the 
Evangelical  Alliance,  1893.  See  other  volumes  of 
these  proceedings. 

The  Open  Church,  quarterly ;  50  cents  a  year  ;  organ  of 
the  Institutional  Church  Movement. 

The  Year  Books  and  Reports  of  Institutional  Churches; 
see  lists  in  Open  Church  and  in  Forward  Move- 
ments; the  latter  published  at  4  cents  by  The  Con- 
gregationalist,  Boston. 

ADDITIONAL  TITLES. 

J.  Koven:     Economic  Aspects   of  the   Liquor  Problem. 

E.  Judson:     The  Institutional  Church. 

C.  R.  Henderson:     Social  Settlements. 

The  Commons  (periodical),  Chicago. 

W.  F.  Willoughby:      Working  men'  &  Insurance. 

B.  H.  Meyer:  Substitutes  for  the  Saloon  (chapters 
on  Fraternal  Insurance.) 

H.  W.  Thurston:  Economics  and  Industrial  His- 
tory for  Secondary  Schools. 

Municipal  Affairs  (periodical). 

H.  B.  Adams:    Tht  Church  and  Popular  Education . 


NOTES  TO  CHAPTER  II.,   PAGE  32. 
HOUSEKEEPING     RECORDS     OF     EXPENSES. 


FORM  A. 
Form  of  an  Account  Book  to  be  kept  by  the  Housekeeper  : 
the  Day  Book. 

DAY  BOOK. 

On 

Hand. 

Dale. 

ITEMS. 

Receipts. 

Expendi- 
tures. 

DIRECTIONS.  —  i.  Give    quantity  as  exactly  as  possible 
with  the  "Items."     2.  Under  "  Receipts"  state  the  source 
of  income  ;  as  wages,  rent,  interest,  gifts. 

Potatoes. 

Other 
Vegetables. 

Fresk  Fruit. 

! 

Jam  and 
Syrup. 

D 

Meals  out. 

9 

I 

Alcoholic 
J>t-int!. 

Conti 


I 

Flour  and 
Crackers. 

If 

Butter. 

fl 

I 

to 

Fish  and 
Poultry. 

1 

t 

1 

5' 

i 

> 


ft    O 

CU     xT 

1  s 


rt 

1 


E 
ti 

o 

UH 


* 


15 
]$ 

-Sr* 
? 


FORM  C. 
THE  POSSESSIONS  OF  THE  FAMILY. 


DATE, 

PROPERTY. 

I.     List  of  Securities,   Stocks,   Bonds, 
Notes,  etc 

II.  Furniture,  Silverware,  Ornaments, 
Books,  Musical  Instruments,  and 
Music  Books 

III.  Bedding  and  Clothing. 

Bedding 

White  Goods 

Clothing 

IV.  Supplies. 

Household  Supplies 

Fuel   . 


V.  Amounts  Due  on  Open  Accounts  .   .   . 
VI.   Cash  on  Hand,  or  Equivalent  .   .   .   . 

DEBTS  AND  LIABILITIES. 

VII.  Debts. 

On  Open  Accounts 

On  Interest  


VIII.  Liabilities. 
Taxes  .   . 
Insurance 


NOTE. — By  subtracting  the  sum  of  VII.  and  VIII.  from 
the  sum  of  I.-VI.,  one  has  the  actual  value  of  property  over 
debts  and  liabilities. 


For  further  explanations  of  the  use  of  these  accounts,  see 
American  Journal  of  Sociology,  March,  1897,  page  662.  The 
author  would  be  pleased  to  correspond  with  families  who  are 
willing  to  keep  such  accounts  and  give  the  use  of  them  for 
scientific  purposes,  without  publishing  names. 


NOTE  TO  CHAPTER  IX.,  PAGE  152. 

MEMBERSHIP  OF   NEW   ENGLAND   COOPERATIVE 

SOCIETIES. 


Name  of  Society. 

location. 

Mem- 
ber- 
ship. 

Sovereigns'  Trading  Co.  .   .   . 
Lewiston  Cooperative  Society  . 
Lisbon  Falls  Cooperative  Ass'n 
Sabattus  Cooperative  Ass'n  .   . 
Farmers'   and  Mechanics'  Ex- 
change   

New  Britain,  Conn.  .    . 
Lewiston,  Maine   .   .    . 
Lisbon  Falls,  Maine  .   . 
Sabattus,  Maine.   .    .    . 

Brattleboro,  Vt  
Pawtucket,  R.  I.    .    .    . 

200 

125 
275 
125 

509 
174 

262 
1909 
185 
398 

184 

201 

123 
82 
2850 

732 
169 

4IO 

1  88 

20 
1130 
196 

45 
60 
60 

80 

Woodlawn   Cooperative  Ass'n 
First  Swedish  Cooperative  Store 
Co  

Quinsigamond,  Worces- 
ter, Mass  

Harvard  Cooperative  Society  . 
Cambridge  Cooperative  Society 
Riverside  Cooperative  Ass'n   . 
Hampden  County  Cooperative 
Ass'n   

Cambridge,  Mass.  .  .    . 
Cambridge,  Mass.  .   .    . 
Maynard,  Mass  

Springfield,  Mass  .... 

Worcester,  Mass.  .   .   . 
Silver  Lake,  Kingston, 
Mass  

Knights  of  Labor  Cooperative 
Boot  and  Shoe  Ass'n  .   .   . 
Cooperative  Store  Co  

Plymouth  Rock  Cooperative  Co. 
Arlington  Cooperative  Ass'n   . 
Lawrence    Equitable  Coopera- 
tive Society    

Plymouth,  Mass.   .    .    . 
Lawrence,  Mass.  .   .   . 

Lawrence,  Mass.   .    .    . 
Lawrence,  Mass.  .   .   . 
New  Bedford,  Mass.  .  . 
Beverly,  Mass  

German  Cooperative  Ass'n  .   . 
Industrial  Cooperative  Ass'n   . 
Beverly  Cooperative  Ass'n   .    . 
Dorchester  Cooperative  Ass'n 
Lowell  Cooperative  Ass'n  .  .    . 
West  Warren  Cooperative  Ass'n 
Haverhill  Cooperative  Society 
Lynn  Cooperative  Society.  .   . 
Rockland  Cooperative  Society 
The    Hub    Cooperative     Em- 
porium   

Dorchester,  Mass.  .  .    . 
Lowell,  Mass  

West  Warren,  Mass.  .  . 
Haverhill,  Mass  .... 
Lynn,  Mass  

Rockland,  Mass.    .   .   . 
Boston,  Mass  

Total  membership  .... 

10692 

NOTE  TO  CHAPTER  IX.,   PAGE  152. 

MEMBERSHIP  OF  COOPERATIVE  SOCIETIES  OUTSIDE  OF 
NEW  ENGLAND. 


Name  of  Society. 

Location. 

Mem- 
ber- 
ship. 

Trenton  Cooperative  Society  . 
\  lammonton    Fruit     Growers' 
Union     and     Cooperative 
Society       

Trenton,  N.  J  

465 

646 

54 
253 
175 
114 

217 
300 
150 
350 

294 
300 

165 
378 
900 

108 
97 
154 
217 

600 

102 
50 
26 

Hammonton,  N.  J.    .    . 

Vineland,  N.  J.  .   . 
Dover,  N.  J  
Raritan,  N.J  
Phillipsburg,  N.  J.  .  .    . 

Jamestown,  N.  J.  .   .   . 

Yineland  Fruit  Growers'  Union 
and  Cooperative  Society   . 
Sovereigns'  Cooperative  Ass'n 
Raritan  Cooperative  Ass'n   .    . 
Cooperative  Association  No.  i 
Jamestown  Cooperative  Supply 
Co  

Integral  Cooperative  Ass'n  .   . 
Allegan  Cooperative  Ass'n  .   . 
Ishpeming  Cooperative  Society 
Zumbrota  Mercantile  and  Ele- 
vator Co  

Pittsburg,  Pa  

Allegan,  Mich  

Ishpeming,  Mich.  .   .   . 

Zumbrota,  Minn.  .   .   . 
Galveston,  Texas  .   .    . 

Eureka,  Kans  

Texas  Cooperative  Ass'n  .   .   . 
Greenwood  County  Cooperative 
Ass'n                     

Lyon  County  Alliance  Exchange 
Co  

Emporia,  Kans  
Olathe,  Kans  

Overbrook,  Kans.  .  .   . 
Green,  Kans  

Johnson    County    Cooperative 
Ass'n  

Osage      County     Cooperative 
Ass'n   

The  Alliance  Cooperative  Ass'n 
Wakefield  Cooperative  Ass'n  . 
Patrons'  Cooperative  Ass'n  .   . 
Zion's  Cooperative  Mercantile 
Institution  

Wakefield,  Kans.  .   .   . 
Cadmus,  Kans  

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah.  . 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.  .  .   . 
Santa  Paula,  Cal.  .   .   . 
Poplar,  Cal  

Socialists'    Cooperative    Store 
and  Productive  Ass'n  .  .   . 
Santa  Paula  Cooperative  Ass'n 
Poplar  Cooperative  Ass'n  .   . 

Total  membership  .... 

6lI5 



INDEX. 


Absentee,  landlords,  65. 

Accounts,  family,  32,  appendix. 

Addams,  Jane,  234. 

Esthetic  element  of  welfare,  37,  199, 
240,  3i5- 

Air,  foul  and  pure,  77. 

American  Sunday-school  Union,  333. 

American  Volunteers,  318. 

Amusements,  244. 

Arbitration,  159. 

Arnold,  T.,  205, 232. 

Art,  240,  247. 

Ashley,  O.  D.f  130. 

Association  of  Working  Girls'  Socie- 
ties, 53. 

Associations,  voluntary,  19. 

Australian  ballot,  186. 

Baths,  83. 

Beauty,  241. 

Beliefs,  a  social  force,  9. 

Bemis,  E.  W.,  152. 

Boarding-houses,  46. 

Body,  the,  its  dignity,  79. 

Booth-Tucker,  Commander,  260. 

Broadus,  J.  A.,  195. 

Brooks,  J.  G.,  295. 

Building  societies,  67,  153. 

Cairnes.J.  E.,  257. 

Calling  lists,  39. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  121. 

Carse,  Matilda  B.,  287. 

Catholic  Total  Abstinence  Union,  284. 

Chad  wick,  E.,  126,  243. 

Chandler,  Senator,  253. 

Channing,  W.  E.,  132,  158. 

Character,  112. 

Charity,  methods,  271,  275,  308,  327. 

Chautauqua,  220. 

Chicago,  water,  76. 

Child  labor,  126. 

Children,  working,  162,  267;  de- 
pendent, 265,  268. 

Christianity,  304. 


Church  Temperance  Society,  284. 
Churches,  304. 

Citizens'  Law  and  Order  League,  286. 
City  and  Suburban  Homes  Company, 

67. 

Civil  service  reform,  179. 
Civilization,  its  nature,  20. 
Clubs,  38, 143,  226. 
Commons,  J.  R.,  188. 
Communication,  96. 
Compulsory  education,  164,  213,  267. 
Conciliation,  159. 
Conduct  and  theory,  9. 
Consumers'  League,  49. 
Convention    of    Christian    Workers, 

323- 

Cooking,  32. 

Cooperation  in  housekeeping,  33. 
Cooperation,  Rochdale  type,  147 ;  in 

banking,  153. 

Corrupt  Practices  Act,  184. 
County  fairs,  37. 
Culture,  132. 

Death-rate,  the,  60. 
Debatable  questions,  19. 
Decorative  Art  Society,  37. 
Defective  children,  203,  265. 
Degenerates,  30. 
Democracy,  192. 

Development  of  family,  24  ;  of  indus- 
try, 103. 

Dike.S.W.,  201,297. 
Disease,  cost  of,  72. 
Divorce,  31. 

Dodge,  Grace  H.,  31,  57. 
Domestic  science,  203. 
Drama,  the,  246. 
Dress,  33. 

Drink  evil,  the,  281. 
Duncan,  W.  A. ,322. 
Dtiruy,  George,  278. 
Dwellings,  defect*  of,  27,  59. 


347 


Index. 


Education,  voluntary  organization  of, 
207 ;  higher  state  of,  214 ;  mission- 
ary, 237. 

Electoral  reform,  182. 

Electric  roads,  95. 

Eliot,  President,  294. 

Emerson,  R.  W.,  191. 

Employers,  117. 

Employment  bureaus,  167. 

Environments,  264. 

Ethical  teaching,  214. 

Evangelical  Alliance,  323. 

Evangelism,  319. 

Evans,  Margaret  J.,  255. 

Extension,  High  School,  208. 

Factory  laws,  162. 

Fairchild,  C.  G.,  63. 

Fairs,  county,  37. 

Family,  the,  23. 

Farm  colonies,  273. 

Farmers'  reading  circles,  227. 

Findlay.J.J.,  193. 

Fiske,  John,  186,  189,  225. 

Fitch,  J.  G.,  225. 

Food,  76. 

Franchises,  168. 

Friendly  visitors,  81,  276. 

Gambling,  300. 

Garfield,  President,  193. 

Giddings,  F.  H.,  256. 

Gilman,  N.  P.,  102. 

"Ginx's  Baby,"  105. 

Girls'  Friendly  Society,  47 ;  clubs, 
52- 

Godkin,  E.  L.,  108. 

Good  roads,  88. 

Gothenburg  system,  the,  295. 

Gould,  E.  R.  L.,  79,  80,  295. 

Government,  ministrant  functions  of, 
170, 176. 

"  Grubb,  Mrs.,"  40. 

Hale,  E.  E.,  225. 

Harland,  Marion,  58. 

Harris,  W.  T.,  196. 

Health,  public,  72. 

Hegeman,  President,  221. 

Heredity,  74. 

High  School  Extension,  208. 

Hill,  Octavia,  35,  62. 

Home  Department  of  the  Sunday- 
school,  322. 


Home,  essentials  of,  29 ;  and  school, 

195;  libraries,  233. 
Hospital,  the,  231. 
Household  economics,  227. 
Housekeeping,  cooperative,  33. 
Houses  on  farms,  69. 
Housing  of  the  poor,  26,  59. 
Howe,  Julia  Ward,  58. 
Humane  Society,  296. 
Ideals,  191. 

Improvements,  how  they  begin,  18. 
Independent  Order  of  Good  Templan, 

285. 

Independent,  The,  238. 
Individualism,  104. 
Initiative,  the,  187. 
Insane,  the,  270. 
Institutional  churches,  309. 
Institutions  a  growth,  15. 
Insurance,  73,  144,  291. 
Intemperance,  30. 
Interests  of  society,  12. 
"Jane  Club,"  the,  56. 
Jenks,J.W.,i8s. 
Jevons,  W.  S.,  244,  250. 
Johnson,  G.  E.,  244. 
Juvenile  offenders,  29. 
Keller,  Helen,  265. 
Kindergartens,  211. 
King's  Daughters  and  Sons,  46,  330. 
Koren.John,  295. 
Labor  bureaus,  272. 
Labor  conferences,  314. 
Labor  movement,  137. 
Landlord  missionaries,  62. 
Landscape  gardening,  248. 
Lanier,  Sidney,  243. 
Laundries,  public,  84. 
Lavatories,  public,  84. 
Lecky,  W.  H.,  187,  257. 
Lecture  courses,  209. 
Libraries,  215,  233. 
License  laws,  293. 

Little  Mothers'  Aid  Association,  47. 
Local  option,  292. 
Lodges,  143. 

Lowell,  J.  R.,  240,  245,  304. 
Luxury,  34,  114,  256. 
MacAlister,  James,  201. 
Machinery,  social  effects,  228. 
MacVeagh,  Franklin,  183. 


Index. 


349 


Mai  thus,  in. 

Mann,  Horace,  125. 

Manny,  F.  A.,  208. 

Manual  training,  210. 

Martin's  "  Human  Body,"  399. 

Meliorism,  105. 

Milk,  85. 

Mill.J.S.,  no. 

Morals,  teaching,  314. 

More,  T.  (Utopia),  229. 

Morley,  Margaret  W.,  299. 

Morris,  W.,  259. 

Mothers,  in^ctories,  28 ;  duties,  34. 

Mothers'  Urnon,  the,  43. 

Motives,  of  action,  12. 

Mott,  A.  J.,  204. 

Mount,  J.  A.,  229. 

Municipal  institutions,  172. 

Municipal  reforms,  182. 

Music,  245. 

Mutual  benefit  societies,  143. 

National  Conference  of  Charities  and 

Corrections,  279. 
National    Divorce    Reform    League, 

397- 

National  Household  Economic  Asso- 
ciation, 227. 

National    League    for   Good    Roads, 

253- 

National  Temperance  Society,  285. 
Natural  laws  in  economic  world,  100. 
Nelson,  N.  O.,  120. 
New  England  manufactory,  124. 
Newspapers,  175. 
Noon  rest  for  girls,  46. 
Open  and  Institution  ml  Church 

League,  309,  324. 
Open  church,  the,  309. 
Orphans,  268. 

Parker,  Superintendent,  205. 
Parks,  250. 

Parochial  schools,  219. 
Parties,  political,  176. 
Pauperism,  261. 
Pawnshops,  172. 
Peabody,  George,  238. 
People's  Banks,  158. 
Picot,  George,  229. 
Pidgeon,  D.,  124. 
Play»,  244. 
"  Pleasant  Sunday  Afternoon,"  301. 


Political  economy,  101. 
Political  reforms,  174. 
Politics  and  health,  82,  86. 
Popularizing  science,  231. 
Population,  problems  of,  no. 
Postal  saving  banks,  171. 
Post-office,  97. 
"  Potato  patch,"  274. 
Prairie  scenery,  251. 
Preventive  charity,  263. 
Prisoners,  to  work  roads,  93. 
Problems,  19. 
Profit-sharing,  131,  133. 
Progress,  86. 
Prohibition,  292. 

Proportional  representation,  187. 
Protective  agencies,  48, 161. 
Provident  measures,  129. 
Public  opinion,  129. 
Public  schools,  196,  296. 
Pullman,  66,  252. 
Raiffeisen  banks,  155,  314. 
Referendum,  the,  187. 
Reforms,  17. 

Religion,  a  social  force,  9;  at  home, 
42 ;  in  schools,  213 ;  teaching,  220, 304. 
Rent,  collecting,  64. 
Roads,  88,  253. 
Robins,  Mary  C.,  348. 
Roosevelt,  Theodore,  140. 
Rural  schools,  206. 
Rural  villages,  70. 
Rush,  Benjamin,  282. 
Rusk,  Jerry,  229. 
Ruskin,  John,  62, 116. 
Salvation  Army,  318. 
Sanitary  aid  societies,  73. 
Schaffle,  9. 
Schools,  191. 
Schurz,  Carl,  180. 
Self-interest,  14. 
Sellers,  Edith,  48. 
Shaftesbury,  Earl  of,  198. 
Sidewalks,  91. 
Slater,  J.  P.,  237. 
Sloyd,  2ii. 
Slums,  the,  60. 
Smith,  r.oldwin,  115,  337. 
Social  purity,  388,  399. 
Social  selection,  78. 
Social  settlements,  334. 


350 


Index. 


Socialists,  104, 173. 

Sociologists,  duty  to  society,  9. 

Sociology,  relation  to  theology,  n. 

Sons  of  Temperance,  285. 

Sooth,  R.,  191. 

Spahr,  C.  B.,  169. 

Specialization  in  philanthropy,  21. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  100. 

Spendthrifts,  358. 

Spoils  system,  82. 

Standards  of  conduct,  25. 

Starr,  Ellen,  199. 

Strikes,  140. 

Struggle,  value  of,  15. 

Suburban  homes,  65. 

Sunday  rest,  300. 

Sunday-school,  the,  321. 

Sweating,  166. 

Taxing  power,  170. 

Telegraph,  the,  96. 

Temperance  movement,  the.  282. 

Theater,  246. 

Theory  and  conduct,  9. 

Thrift,  109. 

Towns,  plans  for,  66,  250. 

Trade  schools,  209. 

Trades  unions,  138. 

Tramps,  83,  271. 

Transportation,  95. 

Trusts,  167. 


Twain,  Mark,  240. 

Unemployed,  the,  107. 

University  Extension,  229. 

University  settlements,  234. 

Unsocial  Club  of  Women,  the,  38, 

Vacation  schools,  238. 

Variety  of  wants,  12. 

Village  improvement  societies,  254. 

Wages,  123, 127, 134. 

Ward,  L.  F.,  260. 

Washington,  B.  T.,  237. 

Water  supply,  75,  81. 

Wealth,  duties  of,  i'3,^J- 

White,  A.  D.,  115. 

White,  Henry,  166. 

Wiggin,  Mrs.  Kate,  40,  47. 

Willard,  Frances  E.,  287. 

Woman's  National  Christian  Tem- 
perance Union,  287. 

Women  of  leisure,  41 ;  wage-earners, 
44  ;  clubs,  255,  266. 

Women  workers,  164. 

Woodward,  C.  M.,  an. 

Working  Women's  Social  Club,  55. 

Wright,  C.  D.,  44, 154- 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association, 

3<>9»  3»7- 

Young  people,  societies  of,  321. 

Young  Woman's  Christian  Associa- 
tion, 45,  318. 


SUPPLEMENT. 


THE  SOCIAL  SPIRIT  IN  AMERICA. 

SYLLABUS    FOR    STUDENTS    AND   INSTITUTES. 

The  readers  of  this  book  may  find  that  they  are  divided  into 
three  classes:  those  who  come  to  the  subject  for  the  first  time 
and  find  it  difficult,  those  who  have  given  some  study  to  the 
topics  and  are  ready  for  more  systematic  consideration,  and 
those  who  will  find  the  treatment  in  this  volume  too  elementary 
and  yet  wish  to  discuss  the  same  topics  with  fellow  teachers. 

For  all  persons  in  these  classes  the  suggestions  which  follow 
may'  be  found  useful.  There  is  an  analysis  of  the  text  and 
then  questions  for  study.  These  questions  can  be  answered, 
(i)  from  a  careful  reading  of  the  text,  (2)  from  observation  of 
the  facts'to  which  attention  is  called,  (3)  from  reading  of  ether 
books.  The  questions  are  of  these  three  kinds,  and  in  this 
order,  and  they  are  distinguished  by  numbers  (i),  (2),  (3).  In 
the  Appendix  is  found  a  list  of  works  for  future  reading,  if  the 
student  has  time,  opportunity,  and  inclination. 

CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Theoretical  social  science  describes  and  explains,  tracing 
facts  to  causes.  Practical  social  science  studies  the  ends  of 
action  and  the  means  of  attaining  ends. 

Religious  beliefs  are  social  facts  and  causes.  The  "social 
spirit"  is  the  will  to  help  humanity.  Sociology  is  not  theology, 
but  it  considers  all  facts  and  puts  creeds  to  the  test  of 
usefulness. 

The  interests  and  motives  which  create  social  institutions: 
hunger,  love,  artistic  feelings,  scientific  curiosity,  desire  for 
fellowship  with  our  kind,  conscience,  religion. 


352  Supplement. 

We  are  born  into  a  world  of  social  institutions,  family,  school, 
neighborhood,  industrial  order,  government,  law,  church. 
Social  institutions  have  had  a  history,  a  development. 

The  various  aspects  of  social  life  are  studied  in  the  social 
sciences — economics,  political  science,  jurisprudence  and 
sociology. 

The  special  subject  of  this  book  is  the  social  movement, 
conscious  and  organized  efforts  to  promote  human  welfare. 

There  are  three  types  of  voluntary  associations.  Unions 
for  mutual  benefit,  unions  of  public  spirit,  and  unions  of 
philanthropy.  Functions  of  voluntary  associations.  "Social 
problems." 

Specialization  and  unity  in  philanthropy. 

Let  not  the  reader  be  alarmed  by  the  word  sociology.  As  a 
man  may  do  very  good  work  as  a  gardener  or  fanner  without 
becoming  a  learned  botanist,  so  an  intelligent  and  honest 
citizen  may  serve  his  town,  commonwealth,  and  nation  without 
being  an  expert  economist  or  sociologist.  Yet  the  more 
knowledge  the  teacher  or  other  citizen  has  of  social  science 
the  better  work  he  can  do.  The  present  volume  is  intended  to 
put  in  clear,  direct,  and  interesting  form  two  lines  of  social 
thought:  (i)  What  do  all  human  beings  need  in  order  that 
they  may  live  full,  rich  human  lives?  (2)  By  what  associations 
and  methods  can  men  combine  effort-  to  secure  for  themselves 
all  that  they  need  for  an  abounding  and  complete  life?  Let 
the  reader  keep  those  two  ideas  in  mind,  as  the  author  did,  in 
the  study  of  every  page  and  line,  and  the  book  will  help  to  give 
insight  and  understanding  of  social  facts,  forces,  and 
institutions. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1)  Can  you  enlarge  or  correct  the  definition  of  the  objects 
of  human  association  (pp.  12-13)  ?     Is  there  a  distinction  be- 
tween "selfishness"  and  "the  interests  of  self? 

What  human  interests  are  served  by  the  family?  By  the 
school?  Describe  the  difference  between  habit,  custom, 
fashion,  manners,  law.  Criticize  Lord  Russell's  definition  of 
civilization.  (Compare  our  pp.  12-13.) 

(2)  Give  examples  from  your  own  knowledge  of  each  of 
the  types  of  association  (p.  re).    Describe  the  origin  and  first 
efforts  of  some  local  association,  club,  lodge,  society.    Criticize 
their  methods  and  effects,  and  give  your  reasons. 


Supplement.  353 

(3)  You  may  compare  any  statements  of  the  text  with  those 
of  any  other  writer  on  the  same  subject  (See  Bibliography 
to  Chapter  I.) 

CHAPTER   II. 

HOME-MAKING  AS  A  SOCIAL  ART. 

Definition  of  the  family.  Functions  of  the  family.  Historical 
forms.  Standards  of  domestic  conduct.  Defects  in  domestic 
life.  Dependence  of  the  home  on  the  community.  Modes  of 
amelioration :  accounts,  instruction,  excess  of  luxury  corrected 
by  good  taste,  societies  for  aesthetic  improvement  of  homes, 
household  religion. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1)  What  human  interests  are  served  by  the  family?    How 
can  we  test   domestic  conduct?   By  what  rules?    How  does 
extreme  poverty  injure  the  home?    What  are  the  effects  of 
extravagance?    What  are  causes  of  divorce? 

(2)  Report  results  of  your  observation  of  families  in  respect 
to  any  point  mentioned  in  the  text. 

(3)  Report  the  result  of  any  reading  on  the  subject. 

CHAPTER   III. 

FRIENDLY  CIRCLES  OF  WOMEN  WAGE- EARNERS. 
Social  industry  of  women  and  consequences,  benefits  and 
evils.     Modes  of  help:  patronage,  mutual  benefit  associations. 
Consumers  League. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1)  How    has  factory  industry  changed    employments   of 
women?    Illustrate.     Why  have  associations?  Describe  the  Y. 
W.  C.  A.,  the  Girls'  Friendly  Society,  the  Consumers'  League, 
Working    Girls'    Societies— their    objects,   organization,    and 
methods. 

(2)  Describe  any  local  association  of  women  or  for  women 
who  work  for  wages.     What  is  done  for  ''domestic  employees"? 

(3)  Report  any  new  points  found  in  magazines  or  books. 

CHAPTER   IV. 

BETTER  HOUSES  FOR  THE  PKOK.B. 

The  ends  served  by  a  house.  Evils  of  crowded  habitations. 
Injury  from  defective  dwellings.  Methods  of  betterment.  The 
rural  dwelling. 


354  Supplement. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1)  Describe  the  object  and  methods  of  "landlord   mission- 
aries."    What  can  a  city  government  do  to  help? 

(2)  Describe  defects  of  dwellings  which  you  have  examined. 

(3)  Give  the  main  points  of  any  article  or  discussion  read. 
Note  additions  to  thought  of  text. 

CHAPTER  V. 
PUBLIC  HEALTH. 

Cost  of  disease.  Causes  of  ill-health.  Sanitary  aid  societies. 
Public  agencies.  Progress. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1)  Explain  important  causes  of  common  diseases.     Show 
the  necessity  for  legal  action.     Trace  the  connection  between 
corrupt  politics  and  dirty  streets. 

(2)  Give  the  results  of  your  own  observations  on  the  causes 
of   disease   in   your   community  and   the  efforts  to  prevent 
sickness.     Ask  a  physician  to  give   his  views.     Criticize  the 
schoolhouse  from  this  point  of  view. 

(3)  Record  results  of  other  reading. 

CHAPTER   VI. 

GOOD  ROADS  AND  COMMUNICATION. 

The  function  of  roads.     Economy  of  good  roads.     Modes  of 
improvement.     New  inventions.     Social  value    of    telegraph, 
telephone,  postoffice,  signal  service. 
QUESTIONS. 

(1)  Give  abstract  of  the  chapter. 

(2)  Describe  the  system  of  telephone  and  postal  service  in 
your  county  and  give  examples  of  effects  on  social  conduct. 

What  is  your  county  doing  to  improve  roads?  Write  an 
editorial  of  five  hundred  words  on  the  subject  of  good  roads. 
Describe  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  improving  roads. 

(3)  Make  abstracts  of  reading. 

CHAPTER  VII. 
THE  SOCIALIZED  CITIZEN. 

Natural  law  in  the  economic  world.  Individualism.  Com- 
munity action.  Power  of  the  individual  to  help  himself. 
Character.  Luxury. 

QUESTIONS. 
(i)  Define  "luxury."   Criticize  the  teaching  of  the  text.    Find 


Supplement.  355 

all  the  fault  with  it  you  can.     Illustrate  the  idea  that  a  man 
serves  society  in  serving  himself. 

(2)  Give  results  of  your  observation  of   effects  of   laziness 
and  drink. 

(3)  Correct  and  enlarge  the  views  of  the  text  by  further 
reading. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

WHAT  GOOD  EMPLOYERS  ARE  DOING. 

Power  and  responsibility  of  wealthy  men  and  business 
managers.  Improved  character.  Wages.  Factory  conditions. 
Inspectors.  Methods  of  paying  wages.  Thrift.  Means  of  cul- 
ture. Profit  sharing. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1)  Can  an  employer  raise  wages?    Illustrate  the  influence 
of  kindness  and  good  taste  in  a  factory.     Define  profit  sharing, 
and  state  arguments  for  and  against  it. 

(2)  Describe  some  instance  of  the  good  will  of  employers 
on  farms  or  in  shops. 

(3)  Ideas  gathered  from  other  reading  on  wages  and  duties 
of  employers. 

CHAPTER   IX. 

ORGANIZATIONS  OF  WAGE-EARNERS. 

The  industrial  group,  its  rise  and  needs.  Trades  unions: 
demand  for,  history,  strikes,  aim,  methods,  legal  status. 
Societies  for  mutual  benefit:  insurance  in  case  of  accident, 
sickness,  old  age,  unemployment,  death.  Cooperative  societies. 
Building  and  loan  associations.  Mutual  banking. 
QUESTIONS. 

(1)  State  argument  for  trades  unions.     State  the  conditions 
of  safe  "life  insurance." 

(2)  Describe  the  purpose,  organization,  methods  and  results 
of  a  building  and  loan  association,  or  of  any  society  of  wage- 
earners  tor  common  benefit      Tell  the  story  of  John  Mitchell 
and  state  your  opinion  of    his  conduct  of    the    "anthracite 
strike." 

(3)  Make  abstract  of   further  readings  on  the   topics    and 
discuss  the   subject   with  others,  then   write   out  your   own 
opinion. 

CHAPTER   X. 

ECONOMIC  COOPERATION  OF  THE  COMMUNITY. 
Need  of  community  action.     Methods  of  conciliation  and 


3  56  Supplement. 

arbitration.  Protective  laws.  Child  labor.  Compulsory  educa- 
tion. Factory  regulations.  Control  of  larger  corporations. 
Savings  banks.  Municipal  help. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1)  Why  do  we  need  boards  of  conciliation  and  arbitration? 
Why  does  the  state  regulate  child  labor  in  factories?    Describe 
modes  of  control  of  trusts. 

(2)  Have  you  observed  any  evil  effects  of  industrial  and 
commercial  combinations?     What?     What  convenient  forms 
of  saving  and  investment  have  you  in  your  county? 

(3)  Compare  this  discussion  with  others  in  newspapers  and 
books  read,  and  write  out  the  differences. 

CHAPTER  XL 
POLITICAL  REFORMS. 

The  functions  of  government.  Parties.  National  aims.  Civil 
service  reform.  Municipal  reform.  The  Corrupt  Practices  Act. 
The  Australian  ballot.  Referendum.  Initiative  and  proper- 
tic  nal  representation.  Legalized  primary. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1)  What  are  the  chief  functions  of  a  government?    What 
is  the  use  of  a  party?    What  are  the  principles  of  the  "merit 
system"?    What  is  a  "primary  election"? 

(2)  Describe  a  "caucus"  after  attending  one  or  asking  an 
active  politician.     What  are  evils  of  the  '  'spoils  system"? 

(3)  Compare  the  text  with  other  statements.     Draw  up  an 
outline  of  the  government  of  your  state. 

CHAPTER  XII. 
THE  SOCIAL  SPIRIT  IN  THE  STATE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 

Ideals  of  education.  Democracy  and  school.  Home  and 
school.  Moral  influence  of  the  school.  The  schoolhouse  and 
domestic  art  Rural  schools.  Extension  courses.  Trade  instruc- 
tion. Ethical  teaching.  Libraries. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1)  Evidences  of  interest  in  education  in  America.      How 
can  adult  education  be  promoted?    Why  have  state  schools? 

(2)  What   provisions   are    made  for  free    libraries   in  your 
community?    Is  there  a  general  desire  to  have  good  libraries? 
What  efforts  are  made  by  citizens  to  help  the  public  schools? 


Supplement.  357 

Arguments  for  and  against   transportation  of   children    and 
concentration  of  schools  in  the  country. 

(3)  Discuss  with  others  topics  on  which  you  have  doubts  and 
in  which  you  have  interest. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

VOLUNTARY  ORGANIZATIONS  OF  EDUCATION. 
Examples  of    voluntary    movements.     Parochial    schools. 
Chautauqua.    Women's  clubs.    Farmers'  associations.   Univer- 
sity extension.    Home  libraries.    Settlements.   Missionary  edu- 
cation.    Vacation  schools. 

QUESTIONS. 

(r)  Why  should  there  be  any  need  of  educational  work  out- 
side the  public  school  system?  Why  are  parochial  schools 
supported? 

(2)  Describe  a  Farmers'  Institute,  or  a  local  club  for  aesthetic 
or  intellectual  improvement.     Examine  and  criticize  the  topics 
of  a  women's  club. 

(3)  Contrast  the  opinions  of  the  text  with  those  suggested 
elsewhere. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

SOCIALIZED  BEAUTY  AND  RECREATION. 

Beauty  a  human  need.  Uses  of  play.  The  arts.  Methods  and 
agencies  illustrated. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1)  What  is  the  physical  need  of  play?    Is  beauty  useful? 
Does  art  help  morality?    Why  are  Americans  deficient  in  the 
arts? 

(2)  Are  there  any  attempts  to  decorate  grounds  and  public 
buildings  in  your  neighborhood?    Point  out  defects. 

(3)  Discuss  some  article  with  other  persons. 

CHAPTER   XV. 
CHARITY  AND  CORRECTION. 

Pauperism.  Prevention.  Relief.  Juvenile  delinquents. 
Defectives.  Charity  organization. 

QUESTIONS. 

(i)  State  causes  of  pauperism  and  crime.  What  is  the 
National  Conference  of  Charities  and  Corrections? 


35$  Supplement. 


(2)  Describe  the  relief  work  in  your  county  and  make  an 
abstract  of  the  law  of  public  relief.     Inspect  and  criticize  your 
jail  and  your  poorhouse. 

(3)  Compare    the   judgments    expressed    in  the  text  with 
others  read. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE  SOCIAL  SPIRIT  IN  CONFLICT  WITH   ANTI-SOCIAL 
INSTITUTIONS. 

The    drink    evil    and    social    regulations.      Social    purity. 
Cruelty.     Divorce.     Gambling.     Abuse  of  Sunday. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1)  Criticize  the  expression  '  'healthy  hate. "     Is  the  antiquity 
of  a  social  custom  proof  that  it  is  good?    What  makes  a  custom 
bad?    Describe  the  "Gothenberg  system." 

(2)  What  is  the  law  regulating  saloons  in  your  state? 

(3)  Make  abstracts  and  criticisms  of  articles  and  books  read 
pn  the  subject.     Discuss,  temperately,  the  subject  with  your 
neighbors.     "Truth  is  daughter  of  time  and  discussion. " 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

THE  INSTITUTIONS  OF  IDEALS:     THE  ANCIENT  CONFEDERACY  OF 
VIRTUE. 

The  social  spirit  rises  into  religion.  Religion  in  man  creates 
the  church.  Ministrations  of  the  church  to  social  needs.  The 
Salvation  Army  and  Volunteers.  Associations.  Sunday  School. 
Federation. 

QUESTIONS. 

'  (i)  Is  education  complete  which  ignores  religion,  religious 
literature,  religious  music,  religious  institutions?  Can  the 
public  school  help?  How? 

(2)  Is  there  any  religious  element  in  the  text-books,  songs, 
and    personal    conversation    of    teachers    in    public    schools? 
What  are  the  positions  taken  and  the  arguments  used?    Could 
morality  be  taught  in  schools  without  religion?    What  are  the 
churches   of    your  county  doing  for  the  spiritual  life  of  the 
people?    How  can  they  improve  their  methods? 

(3)  The  National  Educational  Association  in  1902  discussed 
the  Bible  as  literature,    Read  report  and  discuss, 


fttf 

? 


THE  LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
Santa  Barbara 


STACK  COLLECTION 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW. 


30m-8,'65  (F6447s4)9482 


uc  SOUTHERN  reaoNju 


A     000865799     1 


